人為的な要因による死者数一覧
この項目「人為的な要因による死者数一覧」は途中まで翻訳されたものです。(原文:List of wars and anthropogenic disasters by death toll) 翻訳作業に協力して下さる方を求めています。ノートページや履歴、翻訳のガイドラインも参照してください。要約欄への翻訳情報の記入をお忘れなく。(2020年4月) |
以下は世界史における人為的な要因による死者数一覧である。一覧では、出来事の名前、場所、それぞれの出来事の開始と終了の時期についても述べている。いくつかの出来事については、含まれるカテゴリーが一つ以上になる場合もある。また、いくつかの出来事では、他の出来事と重なっている場合もあり、小さな出来事における死者数がさらに大きな出来事の中で発生した一部であることもある。
死者数はほとんどの場合、多くの不確実な部分がある。表では、低い推定値と高い推定値の相乗平均の順に並べてある。例えば、低い推定値が500人、高い推定値が2000人であったときとなる.
戦争・武力衝突
[編集]ここでは、高い推定値による死者数が10万人以上となる全ての戦争について一覧を載せる。これには軍人と民間人の両方の死者数が含まれる。直接、戦争によって死亡しただけでなく、それによって引き起こされた戦闘、病気、飢餓、虐殺、自殺、ジェノサイドによる死者も含む。
- この一覧は未完成です。加筆、訂正して下さる協力者を求めています。
出来事 | 低い推定 | 高い推定 | 相乗平均[1] | 場所 | 開始 | 終了 | 期間 | 備考、関連 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
第二次世界大戦 | 60,000,000 | [2] | 118,357,00084,269,920 | 世界全体 | 1939 | 1945 |
6年と1日 | 第二次世界大戦の犠牲者も参照 |
三国時代 | 36,000,000 | 40,000,000 | 37,947,332 | 中国 | 184 | 280 | 96年 | 学術的に、三国時代とは、220年に魏の国が成立し、280年に晋が呉の国を征服するまでの期間を指す。184年から220年までの「非公式な」期間は、中国各地での武将同士の無秩序な争いが特徴である。
|
モンゴル帝国による征服 | [3] |
30,000,000[4][5][6][7][8][9][10] | 57,000,00034,641,016 | ユーラシア | 1206 | 1405 | 199年 | モンゴル帝国、Destruction under the Mongol Empireも参照 |
ヨーロッパ諸国によるアメリカ大陸の植民地化 | [11] | 8,400,000[12][信頼性要検証] | 138,000,00034,047,026 | 南北アメリカ | 1492 | 1691 | 199年 | 死亡者数の推定値は、コロンブス以前の先住民の人口規模についての統一見解がないために異なっている。死亡率の90%は主に病気によるものである[注釈 1]。大規模な人口減少は小氷期をもたらした[15]。 |
太平天国の乱 | [16] | 10,000,000[17][18][19] | 100,000,00031,622,777 | 中国 | 1851 | 1864 | 14年 | 清も参照 |
明清交替 | [20] | 25,000,00025,000,000 | 25,000,000 | 中国 | 1618 | 1683 | 65年 | 清も参照 |
安史の乱 | 13,020,000 | 36,000,000 | 21,633,308 | 中国 | 755 | 763 | 8年 | 安禄山の乱とも呼ばれる。 |
第一次世界大戦 | 17,500,000[21] | [22] | 40,000,000+23,568,559 | 世界全体 | 1914 | 1918 | 4年3ヶ月1週 | |
ティムールによる征服 | 11,661,904 | 中央アジア、中東、南アジア | 1370 | 1405 | 35年 | 当時の世界人口の5%にまで及ぶ。 | ||
日中戦争 | [27][28][29] | 5,726,000[30][31] | 21,320,00011,048,906 | 中国 | 1937 | 1945 | 8年 | 第二次世界大戦の一部。 |
回民蜂起 | 8,000,000 | 12,000,000 | 9,797,959 | 清 | 1862 | 1877 | 15年 | 清も参照 |
国共内戦 | [32] | 8,000,000[33] | 11,692,0009,671,401 | 中国 | 1927 | 1949 | 22年 | |
レコンキスタ | 7,000,000 | 7,000,000 | 7,000,000 | イベリア半島 | 711 | 1492 | 781年 | 一つの戦争とは考えられていない。 |
ロシア内戦 | [34] | 9,000,0006,708,204 | ロシア | 1917 | 1921 | 5年 | ロシア革命、List of civil warsも参照 | |
三十年戦争 | [35] | 3,000,000[36] |
11,500,0005,673,870 | 神聖ローマ帝国 | 1618 | 1648 | 30年 | 当初はカトリックとプロテスタントの宗教戦争であったが、ヨーロッパ全体の政治戦争となった。ヨーロッパの歴史の中で最も長く、最も破壊的な紛争の一つである[要出典]。 |
デカン戦争 | 要出典] | 5,600,000[5,600,000 | 5,600,000 | インド | 1680 | 1707 | 27年 | |
ナポレオン戦争 | [37] |
3,500,000[38] | 7,000,0004,949,747 | ヨーロッパ、大西洋、太平洋、インド洋 | 1803 | 1815 | 13年 | Napoleonic Wars casualtiesも参照 |
黄巾の乱 | [39] | 3,000,000[39] | 7,000,0004,582,576 | 中国 | 184 | 205 | 22年 | 三国時代の一部。 |
第二次コンゴ戦争 | [40] | 2,500,000[41] | 5,400,0003,674,235 | コンゴ民主共和国 | 1998 | 2003 | 6年 | |
朝鮮戦争 | [42] | 1,500,000[42] | 4,500,0003,000,000 | 朝鮮半島 | 1950 | 1953 | 4年 | 冷戦の一部と分類される。現在休戦中。 |
ユグノー戦争 | 2,000,000 | [43] |
4,000,0002,828,427 | フランス | 1562 | 1598 | 37年 | カトリックとユグノー(フランスのカルヴァン派プロテスタント)の間の大規模な宗教戦争。 |
インド大反乱 | 800,000 | 10,000,000 | 2,828,427 | インド | 1857 | 1858 | 1年 | |
百年戦争 | [44] | 2,300,000[45] | 3,300,0002,754,995 | 西ヨーロッパ | 1337 | 1453 | 116年 | 百年戦争の歴史 (1337-1360)、 |
ベトナム戦争 | [46] | 966,000[47] | 3,800,0002,383,000 | 東南アジア | 1955 | 1975 | 21年 | 冷戦と第一次インドシナ戦争にあたる。 |
十字軍 | [48] |
1,000,000[49] |
3,000,0002,000,000 | パレスチナ、ヨーロッパ | 1095 | 1291 | 196年 | キリスト教勢力による中東への遠征。 |
ビアフラ戦争 | 1,000,000 | 2,000,000 | ナイジェリア | 1966 | 1970 | 4年 | 内戦によるイボ人の民族浄化。 | |
ムフェカネ | [50] | 1,500,000[51] | 2,000,0001,750,000 | 南アフリカ | 1816 | 1828 | 13年 | Ndwandwe–Zulu War |
ポエニ戦争 | [52] | 1,250,0001,850,000 | 1,520,691 | 地中海 | 264 BC | 146 BC | 118年 | カルタゴ、共和政ローマも参照 |
第二次スーダン内戦 | [53] | 1,000,0002,000,000 | 1,414,214 | スーダン | 1983 | 2005 | 23年 | 第一次スーダン内戦 |
秦の統一戦争 | 2,000,000 | [54] | 2,000,0002,000,000 | 中国 | 230 BC | 221 BC | 9年 | 中国の歴史も参照[55][56] |
文禄・慶長の役 | [57] | 1,000,0003,440,000[4] | 1,854,724 | 朝鮮 | 1592 | 1598 | 7年 | |
七年戦争 | 868,000 | 1,400,000 | 1,102,361 | 世界全体 | 1756 | 1763 | 7年 | |
ソ連・アフガン戦争 | [58] |
600,000[58] |
2,000,0001,095,445 | アフガニスタン | 1980 | 1988 | 9年 | 冷戦中の代理戦争とも言われる。
アフガニスタン紛争の一部。 |
フランス革命戦争 | 1,000,000 | 1,000,000 | 1,000,000 | 世界全体 | 1792 | 1802 | 10年 | |
メキシコ革命 | [59] | 500,000[59] | 2,000,0001,000,000 | メキシコ、アメリカ合衆国 | 1911 | 1920 | 10年 | パンチョ・ビリャの蜂起とColumbus Raidを含む。 |
イタリアによるアフリカの角の征服 | 1,000,000 | 1,000,000 | 1,000,000 | アフリカの角 | 1924 | 1940 | 16年 | |
パンゼーの乱 | 1,000,000 | 943,398 | 中国 | 1856 | 1873 | 18年 | ||
清教徒革命 | 876,000 | 876,000 | 876,000 | ブリテン諸島 | 1639 | 1651 | 12年 | |
メフメト2世による征服 | 873,000 | 873,000 | 873,000[要出典] | 東ヨーロッパ | 1451 | 1481 | 30年 | |
エチオピア内戦 | 500,000 | 1,500,000 | 866,025 | エチオピア | 1974 | 1991 | 17年 | |
ユダヤ戦争 | 350,000 | 2,000,000 | 836,660 | ローマ帝国 | 66 | 136 | 70年 | ローマ帝国も参照 |
南北戦争 | 650,000 | 1,000,000 | 800,000 | アメリカ合衆国南東部、ペンシルベニア州 | 1861 | 1865 | 4年 | アメリカ合衆国も参照 |
アルジェリア戦争 | 350,000 | 1,500,000 | 724,569 | アルジェリア | 1954 | 1962 | 7年4ヶ月2週4 日 |
[60] |
スペイン継承戦争 | 400,000 | 1,251,000 | 707,389 | ヨーロッパ、北アメリカ、南アメリカ | 1702 | 1714 | 12年 | |
スペイン内戦 | 500,000 | 1,000,000 | 707,107 | スペイン | 1936 | 1939 | 4年 | |
八十年戦争 | 230,000 | 2,000,000 | 678,233 | ネーデルラント、南アメリカ、カリブ海、東アジア、東南アジア | 1568 | 1648 | 80年 | |
ガリア戦争 | 1,000,000 | 632,445 | フランス | 58 BC | 50 BC | 9年 | ローマ帝国も参照 | |
イスパノアメリカ独立戦争 | 600,000 | 600,000 | 600,000 | 南北アメリカ | 1808 | 1833 | 25年 | |
パラグアイ戦争 | [61] | 300,000[62] | 1,200,000600,000 | コーノ・スール | 1864 | 1870 | 7年 | Military history of South America、 |
イラン・イラク戦争 | 要出典] | 289,220[要出典] | 1,100,000[564,041 | イラン・イラク国境 | 1980 | 1988 | 8年 | イランの主張では、123,220人の軍人と11,000人の民間人。
イラクの主張では、105,000人の軍人と50,000人のクルド人虐殺。 他の主張では、60万人のイラン人と50万人のイラク人。[要出典] |
1812年ロシア戦役 | 540,000 | 540,000 | 540,000 | ロシア | 1812 | 1812 | 5ヶ月, 2週6日 |
ナポレオン戦争の一部。 |
シリア内戦 | 500,000 | 570,000 | 535,000 | シリア | 2011 | 現在 |
8年 |
|
イングランド内戦 | 356,000 | 735,000 | 511,527 | イングランド | 1642 | 1651 | 9年 | 三王国戦争の一部。 |
アンゴラ内戦 | 504,158 | 504,158 | 504,158 | アンゴラ | 1975 | 2002 | 27年 | |
第一次スーダン内戦 | 500,000 | 500,000 | 500,000 | スーダン | 1955 | 1972 | 17年 | |
対テロ戦争 | [63] | 480,000[63] | 507,000493,500 | 世界全体 | 2001 | 現在 |
18年 |
イラク戦争、アフガニスタン紛争 (2001年-)、ワジリスタン紛争を含む。 |
米比戦争 | 230,200[64][65][66][67] | 1,024,200[64][68] | 485,562 | フィリピン | 1899 | 1902 | 3年 | |
アルビジョア十字軍 | 200,000 | 1,000,000 | 447,214 | 南フランス | 1208 | 1229 | 21年 | |
第一次コンゴ戦争 | 250,000 | 800,000 | 447,214 | ザイール | 1996 | 1997 | 1年 | |
マラーター王国のベンガル侵攻 | 400,000 | 400,000 | 400,000 | インド | 1741 | 1751 | 10年 | |
第一次インドシナ戦争 | 400,000 | 400,000 | 400,000 | 東南アジア | 1946 | 1954 | 8年 | 単にインドシナ戦争とも呼ばれる。 |
モザンビーク内戦 | 175,500 | 905,500 | 397,540 | モザンビーク | 1975 | 1987 | 14年 | 飢餓による死者も含む |
継続戦争 | 387,333 | 387,333 | 387,333 | 北ヨーロッパ | 1941 | 1944 | 3年 | 第二次世界大戦の一部。 |
ソマリア内戦 | 300,000 | 500,000 | 387,298 | ソマリア | 1986 | 現在 |
32年 | |
クリミア戦争 | 356,000 | 410,000 | 382,047 | クリミア半島 | 1853 | 1856 | 3年 | |
イラク戦争 | [63] | 268,000[69] | 461,000364,500 | イラク | 2003 | 2011 | 8年 | Casualties of the Iraq Warも参照
対テロ戦争の一部。 |
第二次キューバ独立戦争 | 362,000 | 362,000 | 362,000 | キューバ | 1895 | 1898 | 3年 | |
大北方戦争 | 350,000 | 350,000 | 350,000 | 北ヨーロッパ、東ヨーロッパ | 1700 | 1721 | 21年 | |
イタリア戦争 | 300,000 | 400,000 | 346,410 | 南ヨーロッパ | 1494 | 1559 | 65年 | イタリア大戦争とも呼ばれる。 |
アルジェリア侵略 | 300,000 | 300,000 | 300,000 | アルジェリア | 1829 | 1847 | 18年 | |
ブルンジ内戦 | 300,000 | 300,000 | 300,000 | ブルンジ | 1993 | 2005 | 12年 | |
ダルフール紛争 | 178,258 | 461,520 | 286,827 | スーダン | 2003 | 現在 |
15年 | |
バングラデシュ独立戦争 | 26,000 | 3,000,000 | 500,000 | 東パキスタン | 1971 | 1971 | 1年 | Bangladeshi Genocide casualtiesも参照 |
第二次エチオピア戦争 | 278,350 | 278,350 | 278,350 | エチオピア | 1935 | 1936 | 1年 | |
パプア紛争 | 150,000 | 400,000 | 244,949 | ニューギニア | 1963 | 現在 |
55年 | |
第一次キューバ独立戦争 | 241,000 | 241,000 | 241,000 | キューバ | 1868 | 1878 | 10年 | 十年戦争とも呼ばれる。 |
ベネズエラ独立戦争 | 228,000 | 228,000 | 228,000 | ベネズエラ | 1810 | 1823 | 13年 | イスパノアメリカ独立戦争の一部。 |
ウガンダ内戦 | 100,000 | 500,000 | 223,607 | ウガンダ | 1981 | 1986 | 5年 | ルウェロ戦争とも呼ばれる。 |
神の抵抗軍による反乱 | 100,000 | 500,000 | 223,607 | 中央アフリカ共和国 | 1987 | 現在 |
31年 | |
仏蘭戦争 | 220,000 | 220,000 | 220,000 | 西ヨーロッパ | 1672 | 1678 | 6年 | |
コロンビア内戦 | 220,000 | 220,000 | 220,000 | コロンビア | 1964 | 現在 |
54年 | |
イラク・クルド紛争 | 138,800 | 320,100 | 210,784 | イラク | 1918 | 2003 | 85年 | |
スレイマン1世による遠征 | 200,000 | 200,000 | 200,000 | 東ヨーロッパ、中東、北アフリカ | 1521 | 1566 | 25年 | |
フランス・スペイン戦争 (1635年-1659年) | 200,000 | 200,000 | 200,000 | 西ヨーロッパ | 1635 | 1659 | 24年 | |
カルリスタ戦争 | 200,000 | 200,000 | 200,000 | スペイン | 1820 | 1876 | 56年 | |
ローマによるブリテン島の征服 | 130,000 | 290,000 | 194,165 | グレートブリテン島 | 43 | 84 | 41年 | |
ラ・ビオレンシア | 192,700 | 194,700 | 193,697 | コロンビア | 1948 | 1958 | 10年 | |
ミャンマーにおける内部紛争 | 130,000 | 250,000 | 180,278 | ミャンマー | 1948 | 現在 |
70年 | |
カリンガ戦争 | 150,000 | 200,000 | 173,205 | インド | 262 BC | 261 BC | 2年 | |
冬戦争 | 153,736 | 194,837 | 173,071 | フィンランド | 1939 | 1940 | 1年 | 第二次世界大戦の一部。 |
ギリシャ内戦 | 158,000 | 158,000 | 158,000 | ギリシャ | 1946 | 1949 | 3年 | |
北イエメン内戦 | 100,000 | 200,000 | 141,421 | イエメン | 1962 | 1970 | 8年 | |
1991年のイラクにおける反乱 | 85,000 | 235,000 | 141,333 | イラク | 1991 | 1991 | 1ヶ月4日 |
|
バルカン戦争 | 140,000 | 140,000 | 140,000 | バルカン半島 | 1912 | 1913 | 1年 | |
英西戦争 (1585年-1604年) | 138,285 | 138,285 | 138,285 | ヨーロッパ、アメリカ | 1585 | 1604 | 19年 | |
サン=ドマング遠征 | 135,000 | 135,000 | 135,000 | ハイチ | 1802 | 1803 | 1年 | |
ユーゴスラビア紛争 | 130,000 | 140,000 | 134,907 | バルカン半島 | 1991 | 2001 | 10年 | |
レバノン内戦 | 120,000 | 150,000 | 134,164 | レバノン | 1975 | 1990 | 15年 | |
シエラレオネ内戦 | 50,000 | 300,000 | 122,474 | シエラレオネ | 1991 | 2002 | 11年 | |
大トルコ戦争 | 120,000 | 120,000 | 120,000 | 東ヨーロッパ | 1683 | 1699 | 16年 | |
千日戦争 | 120,000 | 120,000 | 120,000 | コロンビア | 1899 | 1902 | 3年 | |
モロ紛争 | 120,000 | 120,000 | 120,000 | フィリピン | 1969 | 現在 |
49年 | |
中東戦争 | 116,074 | 116,074 | 116,074 | 中東 | 1948 | 現在 |
70年 | |
メキシコ麻薬戦争 | 106,800 | 106,800 | 106,800 | メキシコ | 2006 | 現在 |
12年 | |
アチェ戦争 | 97,000 | 107,000 | 101,877 | インドネシア | 1873 | 1914 | 41年 | インドネシアでは異教徒戦争とも呼ばれる。 |
ボスニア・ヘルツェゴビナ紛争 | 97,214 | 104,732 | 100,903 | ボスニア・ヘルツェゴビナ | 1991 | 1995 | 4年 | ユーゴスラビア紛争の一部。 |
ドイツ農民戦争 | 100,000 | 100,000 | 100,000 | ドイツ | 1524 | 1525 | 1年 | |
トルコ・クルド紛争 | 100,000 | 100,000 | 100,000 | 中東 | 1921 | 現在 |
97年 | |
コンゴ動乱 | 100,000 | 100,000 | 100,000 | コンゴ共和国 | 1960 | 1965 | 5年 | |
ラオスにおける内乱 | 100,000 | 100,000 | 100,000 | ラオス | 1975 | 2007 | 32年 | |
キヴ紛争 | 100,000 | 100,000 | 100,000 | コンゴ民主共和国 | 2004 | 現在 |
14年 | 第二次コンゴ戦争の一部。 |
カシミール紛争 | 80,000 | 110,000 | 93,808 | 北インド、パキスタン | 1947 | 現在 |
71年 | |
アルジェリア内戦 | 44,000 | 200,000 | 93,808 | アルジェリア | 1991 | 2002 | 11年 | |
アンゴラ独立戦争 | 82,991 | 102,991 | 92,452 | アンゴラ | 1961 | 1974 | 13年 | |
スリランカ内戦 | 80,000 | 100,000 | 89,443 | スリランカ | 1983 | 2009 | 26年 | |
ポロ作戦 | 29,212 | 242,212 | 84,116 | インド | 1948 | 1948 | 5日 |
ハイダラーバード併合とも呼ばれる。 |
戦争犯罪・虐殺
[編集]ここでは軍事組織によって引き起こされた非戦闘員の死者数の一覧を載せる。特定の民族、宗教、政治的グループをターゲットにしたものに限ることなく、一般市民の生命を軽視した軍事戦略や残虐行為について記述する。
- この一覧は未完成です。加筆、訂正して下さる協力者を求めています。
出来事 | 低い推定 | 高い推定 | 相乗平均 | 場所 | 開始 | 終了 | 期間 | 備考 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
第二次世界大戦 | 29,000,000 | 30,500,000 | 29,074,054 | 世界全体 | 1939 | 1945 | 6 years | 第二次世界大戦の犠牲者も参照 |
三光作戦 | 2,470,000 | 2,700,000 | 2,582,440 | 中国 | 1940 | 1942 | 2 years | 1996年に発表された研究の中で、歴史家の姫田光義は、大日本帝国陸軍の対中焦土政策である「三光作戦」は、昭和天皇の認可のもとに実施されたものであり、間接的なものも含めると「270万人以上」の中国の民間人の死亡につながったと主張している。[70] |
国共内戦 | 1,800,000 | [71] | 3,500,0002,509,980 | 中国 | 1927 | 1950 | 23 years | 戦争中、国民政府軍と中国共産党の両方が大規模な残虐行為を行い、何百万人もの非戦闘員が双方によって意図的に殺害された。[72] |
第一次・第二次スーダン内戦 | 2,000,000 | 2,000,000 | 2,000,000 | スーダン | 1956 | 2005 | 49 years | [73] |
ソ連・アフガン戦争 | 500,000 | 2,000,000 | 1,000,000 | アフガニスタン | 1979 | 1989 | 10 years | ソ連侵攻時の民間人の大量殺人はジェノサイドとされることもあるが、政治的な整合性に基づいた殺害であるためpoliticideに分類される。[74][75] |
張献忠の戦争犯罪 | 1,000,000 | [76] | 1,000,0001,000,000 | 中国・四川省 | 1644 | 1646 | 2 years | Committed during a bloody peasant revolt that massacred a large portion of Sichuan's population.[要出典] |
軍閥時代 | 910,000 | 910,000 | 910,000 | 中国 | 1900 | 1927 | 27 years | [33] |
バグダードの戦い後のモンゴルによる虐殺 | [77] | 200,000[78] | 2,000,000632,456 | バグダード | January 29, 1258 | February 10, 1258 | 12 days | Mass slaughter of civilians by the Mongols in Baghdad. Considered to be the end of the "Islamic Golden Age." |
アンゴラ内戦 | 500,000 | 500,000 | 500,000 | アンゴラ | 1975 | 2002 | 27 years | The 27-year war can be divided roughly into three periods of major fighting – 1975–91, 1992–94, and 1998 to 2002 – broken up by fragile periods of peace. By the time the MPLA achieved victory in 2002, more than 500,000 people had died and over one million had been internally displaced. The war devastated Angola's infrastructure, and severely damaged the nation's public administration, economic enterprises, and religious institutions.[要出典] |
第二次世界大戦中の大日本帝国陸軍による生物兵器と人体実験 | 400,000 | [79] | 580,000481,664 | ロシアと中国の一部。
特に満州。 |
1931 | 1945 | 14 years | See also: Unit 731 and the Asian Holocaust. |
マラーター王国のベンガル侵攻における戦争犯罪 | [80][81] | 400,000[80][81] | 400,000400,000 | インド | 1741 | 1751 | 10 years | Maratha Empire invaded Bengal Subah, occupied the western Bengal and Bihar regions, and perpetrated atrocities against the local population.[80][81] |
ラ・ビオレンシア | [82] | 200,000[82] | 300,000244,949 | コロンビア | 1948 | 1958 | 10 years |
La Violencia was a ten-year period of civil war and violence in Colombia from 1948–58, between the Colombian Conservative Party and the Colombian Liberal Party, fought mainly in the rural countryside. |
米比戦争 | 200,000 | 250,000 | 223,607 | フィリピン | 1899 | 1902 | 3 years | [83][84][85][注釈 2] |
マニラ大虐殺 | 100,000 | 500,000 | 223,607 | フィリピン・マニラ | 1945 | 1945 | 1 month | [86] |
コロンビア内戦 | 177,307 | 177,307 | 177,307 | コロンビア | 1964 | present | 54 years | [90] |
第二次エチオピア戦争 | [91] |
62,000[91] |
485,000173,407 | エチオピア | 1935 | 1941 | 6 years | Angelo Del Boca, The Ethiopian War 1935–1941 (1965), cites a 1945 memorandum from Ethiopia to the Conference of Prime Ministers, which tallies 760,300 natives dead; of them: battle deaths: 275,000, hunger among refugees: 300,000, patriots killed during occupation: 78,500, concentration camps: 35,000, Feb. 1937 massacre: 30,000, executions: 24,000, civilians killed by air force: 17,800.[要出典] |
ヴァンデの反乱 | [92][93] | 100,000[94][95] | 250,000158,114 | フランス革命中のフランス | 1793 | 1796 | 3 years | Described as genocide by some historians,[93] but this claim has been widely discounted.[96] See also: French Revolution. |
第一次・第二次チェチェン紛争 | 55,000 | 330,000 | 134,722 | チェチェン | 1994 | 2009 | 15 years | [97][98][99][100] |
イラン・イラク戦争 | 61,000 | 282,000 | 131,156 | イランとイラク | 1980 | 1988 | 8 years | 11,000 to 100,000[103] civilians killed on both sides, plus 50 to 182 killed in Kurdish Genocide. |
ジエム時代とベトナム戦争における南ベトナムによる戦争犯罪 | 57,000 | 284,000 | 127,232 | ベトナム | 1954 | 1975 | 21 years | [104] |
シリア内戦 | 106,390 | 110,218 | 108,287 | シリア | 2011 | present | 7 years | See also: List of massacres during the Syrian Civil War |
ベトコンの戦争犯罪 | [105] | 36,725[106] | 227,00091,305 | ベトナム | 1955 | 1975 | 20 years | |
Second Italo-Senussi War | 80,000 | 125,000 | 100,000 | リビア | 1923 | 1932 | 9 years | Specific war crimes alleged to have been committed by the Italian armed forces against civilians include deliberate bombing of civilians, killing unarmed children, women, and the elderly; rape and disembowelment of women; throwing prisoners out of aircraft to their death, running over others with tanks, regular daily executions of civilians in some areas, and bombing tribal villages with mustard gas bombs, beginning in 1930.[要出典] |
神の抵抗軍の戦争犯罪 | 100,000 | 100,000 | 100,000 | ウガンダ、中央アフリカ共和国、コンゴ民主共和国 | 1986 | 2009 | 23 years | The Guardian reported in 2015 that Kony's forces had been responsible for the deaths of over 100,000 people and the kidnapping of at least 60,000 children. Various atrocities committed include raping young girls and abducting them for use as sex slaves.[要出典] |
民族イスラーム戦線の戦争犯罪 | 100,000 | 100,000 | 100,000 | スーダン | 1964 | 1999 | 35 years | Alleged human rights abuses by the NIF regime included war crimes, ethnic cleansing, a revival of slavery, torture of opponents, and an unprecedented number of refugees fleeing into Uganda, Kenya, Eritrea, Egypt, Europe and North America.[107] |
パプア紛争 | [108] | 100,000[109] | 100,000100,000 | 西パプア | 1963 | present | 55 years | Since Indonesia has taken control of West Papua in 1963, the population of West Papua has recorded more than 100,000 unnatural deaths. The administration of West Papua has been called a police state.[要出典] |
カシミール紛争 | [110] | 47,000[111] | 100,00068,556 | インド | 1947 | present | 71 years | See also: Human Rights Abuses in Jammu and Kashmir, Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir, List of massacres in Jammu and Kashmir |
南京事件 | [112] (全て) 5,000[112] (市民) |
13,000[113] (全て) 100,000[114] (市民) |
400,000(全て) 22,361 (市民) |
72,111中国 南京 | 1937 | 1938 | 1 year | The Nanking Massacre, commonly known as the Rape of Nanking, was a war crime committed by the Japanese military in Nanjing, then capital of the Republic of China, after it fell to the Imperial Japanese Army on December 13, 1937. See: Death toll of the Nanking Massacre. |
ペルー内戦 | [115] [see notes] | 61,00777,552[see notes] | 68,784[see notes] | ペルー | 1980 | 2000 | 20 years | In the late 20th century, the Peruvian government (armed forces and civil rondas) fought against communist terrorists in Peru. The principal actors in the war were the Communist Party of Peru or "Shining Path" and the government of Peru; the Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement was also involved and other paramilitary entities. Peru's Truth and Reconciliation Commission reached a figure of approx. 68,784 deaths and disappearances, of which 54% were ascribed to Shining Path, 1.5% to Tupac Amaru and 37% to State officials, who were also responsible for 83% of reported cases of sexual violence, and systematic use of torture. An academic research published in 2019 contests the Commission's methodology, reaching a total figure of approx. 47,849, of which 27,872 were victims of State officials, 18,341 of the Shining Path, and 1,636 by all other actors.[116][117] |
シェイフ・サイードの反乱 | 15,000 20,000[118] |
40,000 250,000[119] |
24,495 70,711 |
トルコ | 1925 | 1925 | 1 month | The Sheikh Said Rebellion was a rebellion to revive the Islamic Caliphate System, and used elements of Kurdish nationalism for recruiting.[120] It was led by Sheikh Said and a group of former Ottoman soldiers, known as Hamidiye soldiers. The rebellion was of two Kurdish groups, the Zaza people and the speakers of the related Kurmanji dialect of Kurdish: it "was led specifically by the Zaza population and received almost full support in the entire Zaza region and some of the neighbouring Kurmanji-dominated regions".[121] |
ISIL | イラク、シリア、アフガニスタン、リビア、フィリピン、ナイジェリアの他にも世界全体で散発的にテロが発生 | 2014 | present | 7 years | ISIS has existed as an active terrorist organization in one form or another since at least 2003. Many tens of thousands of casualties in the Iraqi wars of the 21st century can be attributed to them and their parent organizations. See also the death tolls from 2014 onwards in International military intervention against ISIL | |||
スリランカ内戦 | [122] | 7,000[123] | 40,00016,733 | スリランカ | 1983 | 2009 | 26 years | There are allegations that war crimes were committed by the Sri Lankan military and the rebel Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (Tamil Tigers) during the Sri Lankan Civil War, particularly during the final months of the Eelam War IV phase in 2009. The alleged war crimes include attacks on civilians and civilian buildings by both sides; executions of combatants and prisoners by both sides; enforced disappearances by the Sri Lankan military and paramilitary groups backed by them; acute shortages of food, medicine, and clean water for civilians trapped in the war zone; and child recruitment by the Tamil Tigers.[124][125]
|
テッサロニキ攻略(904) | 15,000 | [126] | 15,00015,000 | 東ローマ帝国 | 904 | 904 | ? | The sack of the second city of the Byzantine Empire by a Muslim fleet under the command of Leo of Tripoli. In addition to the thousands killed, the Saracen fleet also took 20,000 Greek slaves.[要出典] |
イラン・イラク戦争中のイランによる少年兵の使用 | 6,000 | 18,000 | 10,392 | イラン | 1980 | 1988 | 8 years | 3% of two to six hundred thousand casualties.[127][128][129][130][131][132][133][134][135][136] |
アルジェリア内戦中の虐殺 | 10,000 | 10,000 | 10,000 | アルジェリア | 1991 | 2002 | 11 years | [137][138] |
シリア内戦におけるロシア軍の介入 | 8,085 | 8,085 | 8,085 | シリア | September 2015 | present | 4 years | [139] See also: Russian military intervention in the Syrian Civil War. |
バローチースターンでの紛争 | 7,628 | 7,628 | 7,628 | パキスタン | 1937 | present | 81 years | [140] |
アメリカ同時多発テロ事件 | 2,977 | 2,977 | 2,977 | アメリカ合衆国 | September 11, 2001 | September 11, 2001 | 1 day | [143] |
ドンバスにおける内戦 | 2,000 | 2,000 | 2,000 | ウクライナ | 2014 | present | 4 years | [144] |
サブラー・シャティーラ事件 | [145] | 460[146] | 3,5001,269 | レバノン・西ベイルート | September 16, 1982 | September 18, 1982 | 2 days | Massacre of a Palestinian refugee camp by Lebanese Christians. |
ピロー砦の戦い | 235 | 235 | 235 | ローダーデール郡 (テネシー州) | April 12, 1864 | April 12, 1864 | 1 day | Death toll includes both U.S. and Confederate dead. U.S. dead includes those both killed in combat and murdered by the Confederates afterwards. |
ローレンスの虐殺 | 204 | 204 | 204 | ダグラス郡 (カンザス州) | August 21, 1863 | August 21, 1863 | 1 day | Death toll includes both U.S. and Confederate dead. Deadliest terrorist attack in U.S. history until the Oklahoma City bombing of 1995. |
ジェノサイド・民族浄化・迫害
[編集]ここでは人種、宗教、民族に基づいて行われた大量虐殺(または強制移住によって引き起こされた死亡)について一覧を載せている。
- この一覧は未完成です。加筆、訂正して下さる協力者を求めています。
出来事 | 低い推定 | 高い推定 | 相乗平均[1] | 場所 | 開始 | 終了 | 期間 | 備考 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
東部総合計画 | 13,684,700 | 40,000,000 | 23,396,324 | ナチス・ドイツ占領下のヨーロッパとロシア | 1939 | 1945 | 6 years | ナチス・ドイツによるスラブ民族とソビエト連邦市民の絶滅政策。
数字は、数値は故意の大量虐殺と民間戦争の犠牲者の両方の合計。 |
アメリカ先住民虐殺 | [147] | 2,000,000[12](mostly by disease)[信頼性要検証] | 138,000,00016,613,248 | 南北アメリカ | 1492 | 1996[148][149][150][151] | 504 years | アメリカ先住民の虐殺の総死亡者数はまだ完全には把握されていないが、多くのアメリカ先住民が死亡した。
強制労働、戦争、および虐殺により数千から数百万人が殺害されている。 南北アメリカで懸賞金のため殺害されたアパッチの数は不明。 |
ホロドモール | [152] | 7,000,000[153] | 14,500,00010,074,721 | ソ連 | 1932 | 1933 | 1 year | 「ホロドモール」は一般に人為的な飢饉を指す。 現地在住のウクライナ人が所持する穀物の量や民族移動を制限した。
この用語には、大粛清、正教会との間のウクライナの知識層の殺害も含まれる。 提唱はジェノサイドとという言葉を生んだラファエル・レムキン。 一部の学者は、飢饉がソビエト政府によって意図的に設計されたものであるか、それが大量虐殺であったと主張している。[154][155][156][157][158][159] |
ホロコースト | [160] | 4,200,000[161][162] | 6,300,0005,143,928 | ナチス・ドイツ占領下のヨーロッパ | 1941 | 1945 | 4 years | ドイツとドイツ植民地におけるユダヤ人の組織的な大量虐殺。 |
ポーランド人に対するナチスの犯罪 | 2,770,000 | 2,770,000 | 2,770,000 | ポーランド | 1941 | 1945 | 4 years | Genocide of Christian Poles during the invasion of Poland by Germany. |
三光作戦 | 2,470,000 | 2,700,000 | 2,582,440 | 中国 | 1940 | 1942 | 2 years | In a study published in 1996, historian Mitsuyoshi Himeta claims that the Three Alls Policy, a scorched earth policy implemented by the Imperial Japanese Army on China, sanctioned by Emperor Hirohito himself, was both directly and indirectly responsible for the deaths of "more than 2.7 million" Chinese civilians.[要出典]– Part of the Japanese war crimes |
カンボジア大虐殺 | [163] | 1,386,734[164] | 3,400,0002,171,381 | カンボジア | 1975 | 1979 | 4 years | Deaths due to arbitrary torture, execution, starvation, and forced labor among the population of Cambodia under the rule of Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge, including both killings of ethnic Khmer (the majority ethnic group) as well as a genocide of religious and ethnic minorities by the Khmer Rouge.
Minimum death toll is the number of corpses found in the Killing Fields.[要出典] These killings have been described as autogenocide or civil genocide. According to Samuel Totten 1,325,000 ethnic Khmers were killed. |
ルワンダ虐殺とブルンジ虐殺 | 905,000 | 1,595,000 | 1,234,190 | ブルンジ、ルワンダ、ザイール | 1959 | 1997 | 38 years | Combined death toll of all genocides and other massacres between the Hutus and the Tutsis.
Regarded as the most efficient genocide of the 20th century, the Rwandan genocide was the disorganized communal mass murder of Tutsis, by their rival tribe the Hutu through the Rwandan government and Hutu Power militias such as the Interahamwe and Impuzamugambi.[要出典] Violence peaked in the hundred days between April 7, 1994 and July 15, 1994, during which time between 500,000 and 1,000,000 people were killed.[要出典] |
ソ連による強制移住 | 1,000,000 | 1,500,000 | 1,224,745 | ソビエト連邦 | 1920 | 1951 | 31 years | May include casualties of decossackization. |
ドイツ人追放 | 500,000 | 3,000,000 | 1,224,745 | 東ヨーロッパ | 1944 | 1950 | 6 years | Both direct and indirect deaths of ethnic German civilians and POWs during the redrawing of national borders after World War II. |
カザフスタンの飢饉 | 1,500,000 | 2,300,000 | 1,857,418 | カザフスタン | 1932 | 1933 | 1 year | – Part of the Soviet famine of 1932–33 |
アルメニア人虐殺 | 800,000 | 1,500,000 | 1,095,445 | オスマン帝国 | 1914 | 1918 | 4 years | The first genocide of the 20th century to kill over 1,000,000 people, this event was conducted by the Young Turks government of the Ottoman Empire under the administration of Talaat Pasha, Enver Pasha and Djemal Pasha. |
ハザーラ人の迫害 | [166] | 400,000[167] | 2,500,0001,000,000 | アフガニスタン | 1888 | 1893 | 5 years | Over 60% of the Hazara population were either massacred or displaced in Abdur Rahman Khan's crackdown of the Hazaras. |
土客械闘 | 1,000,000 | 1,000,000 | 1,000,000 | 中国 | 1850 | 1867 | 17 years | After the fall of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom the Qing government cracked down on the Hakka ethnic group for allying with the kingdom slaughtering 30,000 per day. The death toll of the Punti-Hakka Clan Wars is estimated to be 1,000,000 and there was also a mass execution done during the Taiping Rebellion. It is unclear whether these events refer to the Qing crackdown. If this death toll is applied to the estimated death rate, the massacre likely took place over the course of a month.[168][169][170] |
フランスのアルジェリア征服 | 500,000 | 1,000,000 | 707,107 | アルジェリア | 1827 | 1875 | 48 years | Within the first three decades, the French military massacred between half a million to one million from approximately three million Algerian people.[171] |
インド・パキスタン分離独立 | 200,000 | 2,000,000 | 632,456 | インド | 1947 | 1957 | 10 years | In the riots which preceded the partition in the Punjab Province, it is believed that between 200,000 and 2,000,000 people were killed in the retributive genocide between Hindus and Muslims.[172][173][174] |
ジュンガル虐殺 | 480,000 | 600,000 | 536,656 | ジュンガル | 1755 | 1758 | 3 years | The mass extermination of Dzungar Mongols by the Qing dynasty under the order of the Qianlong Emperor. |
ギリシア人虐殺 | 289,000 | 750,000 | 465,564 | オスマン帝国 | 1913 | 1922 | 9 years | Violent ethnic cleansing of Greeks from their historical homeland of Anatolia. |
クロアチア独立国におけるセルビア人虐殺 | [175] | 200,000[175] | 1,000,000447,214 | クロアチア独立国 | 1941 | 1945 | 4 years | Genocide of Serbs by the Ustaše government of the Independent State of Croatia |
チェルケス人虐殺 | 400,000 | 500,000 | 447,214 | チェルケシア | 1864 | 1867 | 3 years | Deaths from mass expulsion of Circassians after Russian conquest. |
アルビジョア十字軍 | [176] |
200,000[176] |
1,000,000447,214 | ラングドック(フランス) | 1209 | 1229 | 20 years | Raphael Lemkin, well known as the coiner of the term "genocide", referred to the Albigensian Crusade as "one of the most conclusive cases of genocide in religious history".[177] |
ソ連によるポーランド人殺害 | 260,000 | 750,000 | 441,588 | ソビエト連邦、ポーランド | 1937 | 1946 | 9 years | [178] |
ブラジルにおける先住民虐殺 | 235,000 | 800,000 | 433,590 | ブラジル | 1900 | 1985 | 85 years | [179] |
チベットの占領 | [180] | 144,000[181] | 1,200,000415,692 | チベット | 1950 | present | 68 years | In 1960, the western-based nongovernmental International Commission of Jurists (ICJ) gave a report titled Tibet and the Chinese People's Republic to the United Nations. The report was prepared by the ICJ's Legal Inquiry Committee, composed of eleven international lawyers from around the world. This report accused the Chinese of the crime of genocide in Tibet, after nine years of full occupation, six years before the devastation of the cultural revolution began.[要文献特定詳細情報] The ICJ also documented accounts of massacres, tortures and killings, bombardment of monasteries, and extermination of whole nomad camps. Declassified Soviet archives provides data that Chinese communists, who received a great assistance in military equipment from the Soviets, broadly used Soviet aircraft for bombing monasteries and other punitive operations in Tibet.[182]Template:Quote needed |
ポライモス(ロマ虐殺) | 220,000 | 500,000 | 331,662 | ナチス占領下のヨーロッパ | 1941 | 1945 | 4 years | The genocide of Romani by Nazi Germany and its puppet states. |
1971年のバングラデシュにおける虐殺 | 26,000[183] |
[184] | 3,000,000279,285 | 東パキスタン | March 21, 1971 | December 16, 1971 | 8 months, 2 weeks and 3 days | See also: Bangladesh Liberation War, Operation Searchlight, List of massacres in Bangladesh, Rape during the Bangladesh Liberation War |
クメール・ルージュによる中国人虐殺 | [165] |
215,000225,000 | 219,943 | カンボジア | 1975 | 1979 | 4 years | More than half of the Chinese population of Cambodia were slaughtered by the Khmer Rouge.[185]– Part of the Cambodian genocide |
アッシリア人虐殺 | 150,000 | 300,000 | 212,132 | オスマン帝国 | 1914 | 1920 | 6 years | One of the various genocides and ethnic cleansings the Ottoman Empire committed under the administration of the Young Turks. |
クメール・ルージュによるカンボジア虐殺 | [165] | 90,000[186] | 500,000212,132 | カンボジア | 1975 | 1979 | 4 years | The genocide slaughtered over 70% of the Cham Muslim population in Cambodia according to themselves.
According to Ben Kiernan, Cham were subjected to the most brutal treatment of those persecuted by the Khmer Rouge and subjected to the slaughter of 36% of their population according to Samuel Totten.[要出典] – Part of the Cambodian genocide |
第一次コンゴ戦争におけるフツ難民の虐殺 | 200,000 | [187] | 220,000209,762 | ザイール | 1996 | 1997 | 1 year | During the First Congo War, Rwanda was able to destroy refugee camps, which the génocidaires had been using as their safe-bases, and forcibly repatriate Tutsi to Rwanda. During this process, Rwandan and aligned forces committed multiple atrocities, mainly against Hutu refugees. The true extent of the abuses is unknown because the AFDL and RPF carefully managed NGO and press access to areas where atrocities were thought to have occurred;[188] however, Amnesty International claimed as many as 200,000 Rwandese Hutu refugees were massacred by them and the Rwandan Defence Forces and aligned forces.[189] The United Nations similarly documented mass killings of civilians by Rwandan, Ugandan and the ADFL soldiers in the DRC Mapping Exercise Report.[要出典] |
Extermination of the Wu Hu | 200,000 | 200,000 | 200,000 | 中国北部 | 350 | 351 | 1 year | Ancient Chinese texts record that General Ran Min ordered the extermination of the Wu Hu, especially the Jie people, during the Wei–Jie war in the fourth century AD. People with racial characteristics such as high-bridged noses and bushy beards were killed; in total, 200,000 were reportedly massacred.[190] |
クロムウェルのアイルランド侵略 | 200,000 | 200,000 | 200,000 | アイルランド | 1649 | 1653 | 4 years | The Parliamentarian reconquest of Ireland was brutal, and Cromwell is still a hated figure in Ireland.[191] The extent to which Cromwell, who was in direct command for the first year of the campaign, was responsible for the atrocities is debated to this day. Some historians[192] argue that the actions of Cromwell were within the then-accepted rules of war, or were exaggerated or distorted by later propagandists. These arguments, in turn, have been challenged by others.[193] |
Caste War of Yucatán | 200,000 | 200,000 | 200,000 | ユカタン半島, メキシコ | 1847 | 1901 | 54 years | The Caste War of Yucatán against the population of European descent, called Yucatecos, who held political and economic control of the region. Adam Jones wrote, "Genocidal atrocities on both sides cost up to 200,000 killed."[194]– Part of the Genocide of indigenous peoples in the Americas |
Great Famine of Mount Lebanon | 200,000 | 200,000 | 200,000 | レバノン山脈 | 1915 | 1918 | 3 years | One of the various genocides and ethnic cleansings the Ottoman Empire committed under the administration of the Young Turks. |
第三次ポエニ戦争 | [195] | 150,000[196] | 250,000193,649 | チュニジア | 149 BC | 146 BC | 3 years | This war was a much smaller engagement than the two previous Punic Wars and focused on Tunisia, mainly on the Siege of Carthage, which resulted in the complete destruction of the city, the annexation of all remaining Carthaginian territory by Rome, and the death or enslavement of the entire Carthaginian population. The Third Punic War ended Carthage's independent existence. |
Destruction of Kurdish villages during the Iraqi Arabization campaign | 87,500 | 388,100 | 184,279 | イラク | 1977 | 1991 | 14 years | 87,500 to 388,100 Kurds were killed in the destruction of Kurdish villages during the Iraqi Arabization campaign including: 2,500[197] to 12,500[197] in the Ba'athist Arabization campaigns in North Iraq, 10,000[198] to 25,000[199][200][要説明] were killed during the Feyli Kurds operation, 5,000[201] to 8,000[202] Kurds were disappeared in the
1983 Barzani killings, 50,000[203] to 100,000[203] (although Kurdish sources have cited a higher figure of 182,000[204]) more Kurds were massacred in the Anfal genocide, and at least 20,000[205] were killed during the 1991 Iraqi uprising notwithstanding an additional 48,400[206] to 140,600[206] Kurdish refugees that starved to death along the Iranian and Turkish borders. |
ダルフール虐殺 |
|
ダルフール, スーダン | 2003 | present | 15 years | The War in Darfur is a major armed conflict in the Darfur region of Sudan that began in February 2003 when the Sudan Liberation Movement (SLM) and Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) rebel groups began fighting the government of Sudan, which they accused of oppressing Darfur's non-Arab population.[211][212] The government responded to attacks by carrying out a campaign of ethnic cleansing against Darfur's non-Arabs. This resulted in the deaths of hundreds of thousands of civilians and the indictment of Sudan's president Omar al-Bashir for genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity by the International Criminal Court.[213] | ||
Polish Operation of the NKVD | 110,000 | 250,000 | 165,831 | ソビエト連邦 | 1937 | 1938 | 1 year | The operation from 1937 to 1938 to eliminate the Polish minority in the Soviet Union. |
Deportation of the Chechens and Ingush | [214] | 123,000[215] | 200,000156,843 | ソビエト連邦 | February 1944 | March 1944 | 1 month | Expulsion of the whole of the Vainakh (Chechen and Ingush) populations of the North Caucasus to Central Asia. |
Hamidian Massacres | 80,000 | 300,000 | 154,919 | オスマン帝国 | 1894 | 1896 | 2 years | Mass murder of Armenian (and other Christian) civilians under Sultan Abdul Hamid II that foreshadowed the Armenian Genocide. |
Indonesian occupation of East Timor | [216] | 60,000[217] | 308,000135,941 | 東ティモール | 1974 | 1999 | 25 years | The civilian deaths under the Indonesian occupation of East Timor, including killings, disappearances, and deaths caused by conflict-related hunger and illness,[218] resulted in an enormous proportional loss of life upon the island some estimating as high as 13% up to almost a third to almost 44% of the population.[217][219][220] |
Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia | [221][222][223] | 60,000[224] | 300,000134,164 | ヴォルィーニEastern Galicia | 1943 | 1944 | 1 year | Genocide[225][226] of Polish civilian population in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA).[227][228][229][230][231] |
1972 Genocide of Burundian Hutus | 80,000 | 210,000 | 129,615 | ブルンジ | 1972 | 1972 | ? | Communal mass murder of Hutus by their rival tribe the Tutsi in Burundi.
– Part of the Rwandan and Burundian genocides |
Anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire | 52,000 | 254,500 | 115,039 | ロシア帝国 | 1903–1906 | 1917–1922 | 19 years | The massacres of Jews in the Russian Empire reached their peak in the early 20th century, through the killing of thousands from 1903 to 1906[232] and tens to hundreds of thousands from 1917 to 1922.[233] |
Kurdish Rebellions in Turkey | 33,835 | 357,000 | 109,905 | トルコ | 1921 | present | 97 years | All casualties from the various Kurdish uprisings against the Turkish state.
|
Deportation of the Crimean Tatars | 100,000 | 100,000 | 100,000 | ソビエト連邦 | 1944 | 1945 | 1 year | Often considered an ethnic cleansing, and Ukraine considers the event genocide. |
Massacres of European colonists during the rebellions of Túpac Amaru II and Túpac Katari | 100,000 | 100,000 | 100,000 | ペルー | 1780 | 1782 | 2 years | The indigenous rebellions of Túpac Amaru II and Túpac Katari against the Spanish between 1780 and 1782, cost over 100,000 colonists' lives in Peru and Upper Peru (present-day Bolivia).[244] |
Spanish repressions of Dutch Protestants | 100,000 | 100,000 | 100,000 | ネーデルラント | 1566 | 1609 | 43 years | 100,000 massacred under Charles V and Philip II during the Eighty Years' War.[245] |
Al-Anfal genocide[246] | [246] | 50,000[204] | 182,00095,394 | イラク[246] | 1986 | 1989 | 3 years | The Kurdish genocide led by Ali Hassan al-Majid under the order of Saddam Hussein. |
Atrocities against Harkis after the Algerian War | [247] | 50,000[247] | 150,00086,603 | アルジェリア | 1962 | ? | ? | The Harkis were seen as traitors by many Algerians, and many of those who stayed behind suffered severe reprisals after independence. French historians estimate that somewhere between 50,000 and 150,000 Harkis and members of their families were killed by the FLN or by lynch mobs in Algeria, often in atrocious circumstances or after torture.[要出典] |
T4作戦 | 70,273 | 93,521 | 81,068 | ナチス・ドイツ | 1939 | 1941 | 2 years | A euthanasia program in Nazi Germany used to purge those deemed genetically deficient. |
Italian Pacification of Libya | 80,000 | 80,000 | 80,000 | リビア | 1923 | 1932 | 9 years | [248] |
グアテマラ虐殺 | 35,000 | 166,000 | 76,223 | グアテマラ | 1960 | 1996 | 36 years | According to the Historical Clarification Commission, 140,000 to 200,000 were killed or disappeared, and at least 42,275 were killed by human rights violations during the Guatemalan Civil War, of which 93% were from officially sanctioned government terror and 83% of the victims were Maya.
– Part of the Genocide of indigenous peoples in the Americas |
Racial violence during the Rwandan Revolution | 50,000 Hutus and tens of thousands of Tutsis |
ブルンジ、ルワンダ | 1959 | 1962 | 3 years | [249] | ||
Indian annexation of Hyderabad | 27,000 | 200,000 | 73,485 | ニザーム王国, インド | 1948 | 1948 | 5 days | [250][251] |
Decossackization | [252] | 5,000[253] | 1,000,00070,711 | Former Russian Empire | 1917 | 1933 | 16 years | Violent class purge, ethnic cleansing, and mass murder of Cossacks, especially Kuban and Don Cossacks, by the Bolsheviks. |
Effacer le tableau | 60,000 | 70,000 | 64,807 | コンゴ民主共和国 | 1998 | 2003 | 5 years | Pygmy peoples were murdered en masse as they were regarded as subhumans.[要出典] |
ヘレロ・ナマクア虐殺 | 34,000 | 110,000 | 61,156 | ドイツ領南西アフリカ | 1904 | 1907 | 3 years | Genocides of the Herero and Nama peoples by the German Empire during the Herero Wars. |
Ethnic cleansing and genocide committed by all sides during the Yugoslav Wars | 52,856 | 64,917 | 58,577 | ユーゴスラビア | 1991 | 2001 | 10 years | All civilians killed in the Yugoslav Wars including events such as the Srebrenica Massacre, Žepa Massacre, Lašva Valley ethnic cleansing, and other atrocities.
69.8% to 82% of civilian victims of the Bosnian War were Bosniak. During the War in Croatia, 43.4% of the killed on the Croatian side were civilians.[254]
|
アメリカ合衆国のインディアン戦争 | 49,000 | 64,000 | 56,000 | アメリカ合衆国 | 1511 | 1890 | 389 years | From the U.S. Bureau of the Census (1894): "The Indian wars under the government of the United States have been more than 40 in number. They have cost the lives of about 19,000 white people, including those killed in individual combats, and the lives of about 30,000 Indians. The actual number of killed and wounded Indians must be very much higher than the given ... Fifty percent additional would be a safe estimate ..."[要出典] Part of the Genocide of indigenous peoples in the Americas.[要出典] |
Massacres of Polish civilians during the Warsaw Uprising | 50,000 | [261][262] | 60,00054,772 | ポーランド | August 5, 1944 || August 12, 1944 |
1 week | Polish fatalities in districts of Wola and Ochota committed during Warsaw Uprising | |
1993 Genocide of Burundian Tutsis | 50,000 | 50,000 | 50,000 | ブルンジ | 1993 | 1993 | ? | Communal mass murder of Tutsis by their rival tribe the Hutu in Burundi.
– Part of the Rwandan and Burundian genocides |
近世の魔女裁判 | 20,000 | 100,000 | 44,721 | ヨーロッパ | 1400 | 1800 | 300 years | [263] |
British concentration camps during the Second Boer War | 26,000 | 40,000 | 32,249 | トランスヴァール共和国 | 1900 | 1902 | 2 years | Lord Kitchener led the British army against the Boer Republics in the Second Boer War in Southern Africa. In an attempt to pacify Boer guerrillas, he targeted their families, and 116,000 Boer women and children were captured and jailed by the British, Within 2 years, 22,074 children died and 4,177 women died due to deliberate neglect by the British. 115,000 black people were separately jailed, of whom 15,000 died in prison camps.[264] |
Great Fire of Smyrna | [265][266] | 10,000[267][268] | 100,00031,623 | イズミル, オスマン帝国 | September 9, 1922 |
September 24, 1922 |
15 days | Fires set during attacks on Greeks and Armenians by Turkish mobs and military forces in Smyrna at the end of the Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922).
The violence and fires resulted in the destruction of the Greek and Armenian portions of the city and the massacre of their populations. After the attacks, 30,000 Greek and Armenian men left behind were deported by Turkish forces, many of whom were subsequently killed.[要出典] |
Massacres of Kyrgyz people during the Central Asian revolt of 1916 | 3,000 | 270,000 | 28,460 | キルギス | 1916 | 1916 | 7 months | In 1916, there was an uprising and crackdown of Kyrgyzstanis against and by Tsarist Russia in what is now known as the Urkun.
A public commission in Kyrgyzstan called the crackdown of 1916 that killed 100,000 to 270,000 Kyrgyzstanis a genocidethough Russia rejected this characterization.[269] |
Captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam | 10,000 | 65,000 | 25,495 | Canara | 1784 | 1799 | 15 years | A 15-year imprisonment of Mangalorean Catholics and other Christians at Seringapatam in the Indian region of Canara by Tipu Sultan, the de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore.[要出典] |
1988 Burundian massacre of Hutus | 25,000 | 25,000 | 25,000 | ブルンジ | 1988 | 1988 | ? | [249]– Part of the Rwandan and Burundian genocides |
Parsley massacre | [271][272] | 17,000[271][272] | 35,00024,393 | ドミニカ共和国 | October 2, 1937 | October 8, 1937 | 6 days | Genocidal massacre of people who say perejil (Spanish: "parsley") in a French accent in order to determine if they are Afro-Haitian or Afro-Dominican. |
Australian frontier wars | 22,000 | 22,500 | 22,249 | オーストラリア | 1788 | 1934 | 146 years | Wars between Indigenous Australians and settlers in which about 20,000 aboriginal were massacred, along with two to 2,500 settlers dying in combat.[要出典]See also: List of massacres of Indigenous Australians |
Ethnic cleansing of Georgians in Abkhazia | 17,000 | 28,000 | 21,817 | アブハジア、ジョージア | 1992 | 1993 | 1 year | The ethnic cleansing of Georgians in Abkhazia,[273][274][275][276][277][278][279][280][281][282][283][284] also known as the "massacres of Georgians in Abkhazia",[285][286] and "genocide of Georgians in Abkhazia"[287] Refers to ethnic cleansing,[288] massacres[289] and forced mass expulsion of thousands of ethnic Georgians |
Dersim Massacre | 7,594 | 40,000 | 17,429 | デルスィム, トルコ | 1937 | 1937 | 8 months | The Dersim massacre was a massacre of Kurdish people (Alevi Kurmanj and Zaza) by the Turkish government in the Dersim region of eastern Turkey, which includes parts of Tunceli Province, Elazığ Province, and Bingöl Province.[290][291][292][293][294][295][296] The massacre occurred after a rebellion led by Seyid Riza against the Turkification policies of the Turkish government.[297] As a result of the Turkish military campaign against the rebellion, thousands of Alevi Zazas[298] died and many others were internally displaced due to the conflict.
– Part of the Kurdish Rebellions in Turkey |
1966 anti-Igbo pogrom | 10,000 | 30,000 | 17,321 | ナイジェリア | May 29, 1966 | October 1966 | 4 months, 2 days | [299] |
Indian massacres in the United States frontiers | 16,349 | 16,349 | 16,349 | アメリカ合衆国 | 1511 | 1890 | 379 years | It is difficult to determine the total number of people who died as a result of Indian massacres. However, one book, The Wild Frontier: Atrocities during the American-Indian War from Jamestown Colony to Wounded Knee, presents an estimate by counting every recorded atrocity in the area that would eventually become the continental United States, from first contact (1511) to the closing of the frontier (1890). The parameters were limited to the intentional and indiscriminate murder, torture, or mutilation of civilians, the wounded, and prisoners. The results revealed that 7,193 people died from atrocities perpetrated by those of European descent, and 9,156 people died from atrocities perpetrated by Native Americans.[300]– Part of the Genocide of indigenous peoples in the Americas |
Persecution of Biharis in Bangladesh | 1,000 | [301][302] | 150,00012,247 | バングラデシュ | 1971 | 1971 | ? | Most extreme episode of the massacres of Biharis by Bengali mobs |
Gukurahundi | [303] | 3,750[304] | 30,00010,607 | ジンバブエ | 1983 | 1987 | 5 years | Ethnic cleansing and executions of members of the Ndebele by the Robert Mugabe's Fifth Brigade. |
クメール・ルージュによるベトナム人虐殺 | [165] | 10,00010,000 | 10,000 | カンボジア | 1975 | 1979 | 4 years | 100% of the Vietnamese in Cambodia were slaughtered during the genocide, according to Samuel Totten.
– Part of the Cambodian genocide |
クメール・ルージュによるタイ人虐殺 | [165] | 8,0008,000 | 8,000 | カンボジア | 1975 | 1979 | 4 years | 40% of Thai in Cambodia were killed during the Cambodian genocide according to Samuel Totten.
– Part of the Cambodian genocide |
1946 Bihar riots | 2,000 | 30,000 | 7,746 | ビハール州, インド | October 30, 1946 | November 7, 1946 | 8 days | Killings of Bihari Muslims by Bengali Hindus in retaliation to the Direct Action Day riots.[305][306] |
Noakhali riots | 5,000 | 10,000 | 7,071 | ベンガル地方, インド | October 1946 | November 1946 | 1 month | Killings of Bengali Hindus by Bengali Muslims in retaliation to the Direct Action Day riots. |
Sétif and Guelma massacre | 1,020 | 45,000 | 6,775 | アルジェリア | 1945 | 1945 | ? | [247] |
Deaths of indigenous children in the Canadian residential schools system | [307][308] | 3,20132,010 | 17,606 | カナダ | 1876 | 1996 | 120 years | [148][149][150][309][310][151][311][312]– Part of the Genocide of indigenous peoples in the Americas |
Genocide of native Tasmanians | 3,000 | 15,000 | 6,708 | オーストラリア | 1803 | 1905 | 102 years | After the death of Fanny Cochrane Smith there were no non-mixed raced Tasmanians left in the world.[要出典] |
Massacres of Arabs and Indians during the Zanzibar Revolution | 2,000 | 20,000 | 6,325 | ザンジバル | 1964 | 1964 | ? | Thousands of Arabs and Indians were massacred during the Zanzibar Revolution |
1964 East Pakistan riots | 5,590 | 5,690 | 5,640 | 東パキスタン | January 2, 1964 | March 28, 1964 | 2 months, 26 days | All casualties from the various riots in East Pakistan during the year 1964.
|
Simele massacre | [313] | 5,000[314][315] | 6,0005,477 | イラク | August 7, 1933 | August 11, 1933 | 4 days | The Simele massacre inspired Raphael Lemkin to create the concept of genocide.[316] |
1950 East Pakistan riots | 4,803 | 4,833 | 4,818 | 東ベンガル | February 1950 | March 1950 | 1 month | All casualties from the various riots in East Pakistan during the year 1950.
|
1984 Sikh Massacre | 2,800 | 8,000 | 4,733 | インド | October 31, 1984 | November 3, 1984 | 1 month | A series of pogroms against Sikhs primarily done by members of the Indian National Congress party due to the assassination of the prime minister. |
Nellie massacre | 2,191 | 10,000 | 4,681 | アッサム州, インド | Six hours on February 18, 1983 | Six hours on February 18, 1983 | 6 hours | Killings of 2191 Bengali Musims after Prime Minister Indira Gandhi's decision to give 4 million Bengali Musilms in Assam the right to vote[317] |
Laotian genocide by Khmer Rouge | 4,000 | 4,000 | 4,000 | カンボジア | 1975 | 1979 | 4 years | 40% of Laotians in Cambodia were killed during the Cambodian genocide according to Samuel Totten.[165]– Part of the Cambodian genocide |
Direct Action Day | 4,000 | 4,000 | 4,000 | インド | August 16, 1946 | August 18, 1946 | 2 days | Also known as the Great Calcutta Killings, a day of widespread riot and manslaughter between Hindus and Muslims in the city of Calcutta (now known as Kolkata) in the Bengal province of British India. |
1804 Haiti massacre | 3,000 | 5,000 | 3,873 | ハイチ | Early February 1804 | April 22, 1804 | ? | Genocide of French people in Haiti.[318] |
涙の道 | 2,000 | 6,000 | 3,464 | アメリカ合衆国 | 1830 | 1850 | 20 years | The forced relocation of various Native American tribes under the order of Andrew Jackson.
– Part of the Genocide of indigenous peoples in the Americas |
Genocide of Yazidis by ISIL | [319][320] | 2,0005,000 | 3,162 | シンジャール, イラク、シリア | 2014 | present | 4 years | Ethnic cleansing, execution, forced conversion, rape, and enslavement of Yazidis by ISIL |
Selk'nam genocide | [321] | 2,500[322] | 3,9003,122 | ティエラ・デル・フエゴ, チリ | Late 1800s | Early 1900s | ? | Genocide of Selknam Native Chilean tribe.
– Part of the Genocide of indigenous peoples in the Americas |
Massacre of protesters at the Demolition of the Babri Masjid | 2,000 | 2,000 | 2,000 | アヨーディヤー, インド | 1992 | 1993 | 1 year | The destruction of a prominent mosque in India by Hindu extremists and killings of Muslim protesters.[323] |
2002 Gujarat riots | 1,044 | [324] | 2,9771,763 | グジャラート州, インド | February 2002 | March 2002 | 1 month | Minimum death toll includes 790 Muslim death toll. Both death tolls include 254 Hindu deaths. Maximum death toll includes 223 presumed mixing as dead, and a higher 2,500 Muslim death toll.[要出典] |
Genocide of Shias by ISIL | [325] | イラク、シリア、アフガニスタン | 2003 | present | 16 years | Ethnic cleansing, execution, forced conversion, rape, and enslavement of Shias by ISIL. One of the first instances was the Imam Ali Mosque bombing in Najaf | ||
Conquest of the Desert | 1,300 | 1,300 | 1,300 | アルゼンチン | Mid 1870s | 1884 | ? | Military campaign, directed mainly by General Julio Argentino Roca, which established Argentine dominance over Patagonia, then inhabited by indigenous peoples.[326]– Part of the Genocide of indigenous peoples in the Americas |
Genocide of Christians by ISIL | [327] | 世界全体 | 2014 | present | 4 years | Ethnic cleansing, execution, forced conversion, rape, and enslavement of Christians by ISIL. In Iraq, the genocide started before 2014, as exemplified by the 2010 Baghdad church massacre | ||
ベルリンの壁 | 327[328] | 1,500[328][329] | 929 | 東ドイツ | 1949 | 1989 | 40 years | |
Black War | 878 | 878 | 878 | オーストラリア | Mid 1820s | 1832 | ? | – Part of the Genocide of native Tasmanians |
Biological warfare at the Siege of Fort Pitt | ? |
? |
? |
ペンシルバニア州ピッツバーグ | June 22, 1763 | August 10, 1763 | 1 months, 18 days | The death toll resulting from the event is unknown – Part of the Genocide of indigenous peoples in the Americas |
政治的粛清・弾圧
[編集]ここでは政治的な対立による大量殺害についての一覧を載せる。
- この一覧は未完成です。加筆、訂正して下さる協力者を求めています。
出来事 | 低い推定 | 高い推定 | 相乗平均[1] | 場所 | 開始 | 終了 | 期間 | 備考 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
文化大革命 | [330] | 400,000[331] | 10,000,0002,000,000 | 中華人民共和国 | 1966 | 1976 | 10 years | The Cultural Revolution, formally the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, was a sociopolitical movement that took place in the People's Republic of China from 1966 until 1976. Set into motion by Mao Zedong, then Chairman of the Communist Party of China, its stated goal was to preserve 'true' Communist ideology in the country by purging remnants of capitalist and traditional elements from Chinese society. See also: Struggle session |
1965-66のインドネシアでの大量虐殺 | [332] | 500,000[333] | 3,000,0001,224,745 | インドネシア | 1965 | 1966 | 1 year | Massacres of people connected to the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) were carried out in 1965–66 by the Indonesian Army and associated death squads with support from Western powers such as the United States.[334] Death tolls are difficult to estimate,[335] but it is widely accepted by scholars that roughly 1 million people were killed.[336] |
大粛清 | [337] | 681,692[338] | 1,704,2301,077,850 | ソビエト連邦 | 1936 | 1938 | 2 years | The Great Purge or Great Terror was a period of intense political repression in the Soviet Union including execution (especially through open air shootings) and forced labor through the Gulag system.[要出典] |
土地改革・反革命鎮圧運動 | [339] | 200,000[339] | 5,000,0001,000,000 | 中華人民共和国 | 1949 | 1953 | 4 years | この二つの運動はほぼ同時に行われたため犠牲者の数を分けて考えることは難しい。
また、国共内戦(1945-1949)中に行われたものはこの推定には加算しない |
白色テロ(ロシア) | 300,000 | [340] | 300,000300,000 | ロシア帝国 | 1917 | 1923 | 6 years | Political repression by the White movement during the Russian Civil War. |
白色テロ(スペイン) | [341] | 150,000[342] | 400,000244,949 | Spain during and after the Spanish Civil War | 1936 | 1945 | 9 years | In Spain, the White Terror (also known as "la Represión Franquista" or the "Francoist Repression") was the series of acts of politically motivated violence, rape, and other crimes committed by the Nationalist movement during the Spanish Civil War (July 17, 1936 to April 1, 1939) and during Francisco Franco's dictatorship (October 1, 1936 – November 20, 1975)[343] |
赤色テロ(エチオピア) | 30,000 | [344] | 750,000150,000 | People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia | 1977 | 1978 | 1 year | Violent purge of those deemed Anti-Communist in Ethiopia.[345][346][347][348][349] |
保導連盟事件 | [350] | 100,000[351] | 200,000141,421 | 韓国 | 1950 | 1950 | ? | Massacre of communists and suspected communists during the summer of 1950, at the start of Korean War. |
ナチスによるフリーメイソン弾圧 | [352] | 80,000[352] | 200,000126,491 | German-occupied territory | 1933 | 1945 | 12 years | The Nazi regime of Germany targeted Freemasons as they saw them as collaborators in a Jewish conspiracy.
|
赤色テロ | [353] | 10,000[354] | 1,500,000122,474 | Former Russian Empire during Russian Civil War | 1918 | 1922 | 4 years | Political repression by the Bolsheviks during the Russian Civil War. |
1991年のイラクでの反乱 | 25,000 | 180,000 | 67,082 | イラク | March the 1st, 1991 | April the 5th, 1991 | 1 month and 4 days | The death toll of the uprising against Saddam Hussein's government during 1991 was high throughout the country. The rebels killed many Ba'athist officials and officers. In response, thousands of unarmed civilians were killed by indiscriminate fire from loyalist tanks, artillery and helicopters, and many historical and religious structures in the south were deliberately targeted under orders from Saddam Hussein. Saddam's security forces entered the cities, often using women and children as human shields, where they detained and summarily executed or "disappeared" thousands of people at random in a policy of collective responsibility. Many suspects were tortured, raped, or burned alive.[355] |
コンドル作戦 | 50,000 | [356] | 80,00063,246 | South America | 1975 | 1983 | 8 years | A campaign of political repression by right-wing dictatorships in South America, sponsored by the United States.[357][358] |
赤色テロ(スペイン) | [359] | 38,000[360] | 72,34452,432 | Spain during the Spanish Civil War | 1936 | 1939 | 3 years | The Red Terror in Spain (スペイン語: Terror Rojo)[361] is the name given by historians to various acts of violence committed from 1936 until the end of the Spanish Civil War "by sections of nearly all the leftist groups".[362] |
ベトナムでの農地改革 | [363] | 13,500[364] | 200,00051,962 | North Vietnam | 1954 | 1956 | 2 years | |
フランス革命での恐怖政治 | [365] | 16,594[366] | 41,59426,272 | France during the French Revolution | 1793 | 1794 | 1 year | The Reign of Terror was a period of violence that occurred after the onset of the French Revolution, incited by conflict between two rival political factions, the Girondins and The Jacobins, and marked by mass executions of "enemies of the revolution".[要出典] |
ハマー虐殺 | 10,000 | 40,000 | 20,000 | Hama, Syria | February 2, 1982 | February 28, 1982 | 26 days | The Hama massacre (Arabic: مجزرة حماة) occurred in February 1982, when the Syrian Arab Army and the Defense Companies, under the orders of the country's president Hafez al-Assad, besieged the town of Hama for 27 days in order to quell an uprising by the Muslim Brotherhood against al-Assad's government.[要出典] |
ラ・マタンサ | 10,000 | [367] | 40,00020,000 | エルサルバドル | January 22, 1932 | July 11, 1932 | 6 months and 20 days | Many of the victims were indigenous people. |
二・二八事件 | 10,000 | 30,000 | 17,320 | Taiwan | 1947 | 1947 | ? | Crackdown by the Kuomintang government that ushered in the White Terror (Taiwan) era. |
汚い戦争 | [368] | 9,000[357] | 30,00016,432 | Argentina | 1976 | 1983 | 7 years | At least 9,000 people were tortured and killed in Argentina from 1976 to 1983, carried out primarily by the Argentinean military Junta (part of Operation Condor).[357] |
フィンランド内戦における赤色・白色テロ | 11,650 | 11,650 | 11,650 | Finland | 1918 | 1918 | 3 months, 2 weeks and 4 days | Both sides of the Finnish Civil War used Terrors where 10,000 were killed in the White Terror and 1,650 were killed in the Red Terror.[369] |
1988年のイランでの政治犯の処刑 | 4,482 | 30,000 | 11,596 | Iran | 1988 | 1988 | 5 months | Massacre of political prisoners in Iran.[370][371][372] |
白色テロ (台湾) | 3,000 | 4,000 | 3,464 | Taiwan | 1949 | 1987 | 38 years | An era of martial law in Taiwan in which 140,000 where imprisoned, and 3,000 to 4,000 were executed for real or perceived opposition to the Kuomintang.[要出典] |
六四天安門事件 | 241 | [373] | 10,0003,000 | Tiananmen Square, People's Republic of China | 1989 | 1989 | 1 month, 2 weeks and 6 days | Crackdown of anti-government protest in the People's Republic of China. |
ピノチェト政権下のチリにおける人権侵害 | 1,200 | 3,200 | 1,960 | Chile | 1974 | 1990 | 16 years | 1,200 to 3,200 alleged communists were executed, 80,000 were forcibly interned and 30,000 were tortured under the reign of Augusto Pinochet.[374][375] |
強制労働・奴隷貿易
[編集]ここでは、労働条件の悪さによる死亡、労働能力を十分に発揮できなかったことによる死刑、輸送中や職場での労働者の不当な扱いによる死亡について一覧を載せる。
- この一覧は未完成です。加筆、訂正して下さる協力者を求めています。
出来事 | 低い推定 | 高い推定 | 相乗平均 | 場所 | 開始 | 終了 | 期間 | 備考 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
アラブ人の奴隷貿易 | [376] | 7,545,000[377] | 70,000,00022,981,514 | Middle East, North Africa, and the Horn of Africa | 700s | 1899 | more than 1100 years |
1500 to 1899:
Other sources estimate as many as 70 million could have perished.[377] |
労働改造制度 | [382] | 15,000,00027,000,000 | 20,124,610 | China | 1945 | 1976 | 31 years | Laogai (勞改/劳改), the abbreviation for Láodòng Gǎizào (勞動改造/劳动改造), which means "reform through labor", is a slogan of the Chinese criminal justice system and has been used to refer to the use of penal labour and prison farms in the People's Republic of China (PRC), which once took up more than half of the world's slaves.[要出典] Laogai is different from laojiao, or re-education through labor, which was an administrative detention for a person who was not a criminal but had committed minor offenses, and was intended to reform offenders into law-abiding citizens.[383] Persons detained under laojiao were detained in facilities that were separate from the general prison system of laogai. Both systems, however, involved penal labor.[要出典] |
大西洋奴隷貿易 | [384] | 2,000,000[385] | 60,000,00010,954,451 | Africa, the Americas, and the Atlantic | 1500s | 1700s | 200 years | |
オスマン帝国における奴隷制 | [386][387] | 10,500,00011,250,000 | 10,868,533 | Eurasia, Middle East, North Africa | 1450 | 1800 | 350 years | There is no concrete number for the number of people killed due to the Barbary Slave Trade.
The method many people use is to estimate the mortality rate of slave raids and multiply them by the number people took as slaves. Scholars estimates 3 people were killed for every 1 slave abducted. Includes Barbary Slave Trade.[要出典] |
コンゴ自由国における残虐 | [注釈 3] | 3,000,000[389] | 13,000,0006,244,998 | Congo Free State | 1885 | 1908 | 23 years | Private forces under the control of Leopold II of Belgium carried out mass murders, mutilations, and other crimes against the Congolese in order to encourage the gathering of valuable raw materials, principally rubber. Significant deaths also occurred due to major disease outbreaks and starvation, caused by population displacement and poor treatment.[390] Estimates of the death toll vary considerably because of the lack of a formal census before 1924, but a commonly cited figure of 10 million deaths was obtained by estimating a 50% decline in the total population during the Congo Free State and applying it to the total population of 10 million in 1924.[391] |
グラグ制度 | [392][393] | 1,053,829[394] | 6,000,0002,514,552 | Soviet Union | 1930s | 1950s | 20 years | Gulag is an acronym for the organization that administered the forced labor system in the Soviet Union that became a colloquialism in the west for the camps themselves. The system was used to punish criminals, political dissidents, and prisoners of war.[要出典] There is a growing consensus among scholars that, based on archival data, the number of deaths in the gulag system fall within the range 1.5 to 1.7 million.[395][396][397] |
北朝鮮における強制労働 | 400,000 | 1,500,000 | 774,597 | North Korea | 1972 | ongoing | 46 years | [398][399] |
アシエンダ制における奴隷労働 | 173,000 | 2,015,000 | 590,419 | Mexico | 1900 | 1920 | 20 years | R.J. Rummel, coiner of the word "Democide," estimated the mortality rate for Mexican Peonage, a form of debt labor, by comparing it to similar forced labor systems such as the Soviet Gulag, and then applying and reducing it accordingly to the population of Mexico at the time, coming up with an annual death rate of 69,000.[要出典] |
大日本帝国による朝鮮人の強制労働 | 270,000 | 810,000 | 467,654 | Korea and Manchuria | 1939 | 1945 | 6 years | [400] |
フランス植民地帝国における奴隷制 | 200,000 | 13,000,000 | 1,612,452 | Africa | 1900 | 1940 | 40 years | [401] |
ポルトガルの奴隷制 | 325,000 | 325,000 | 325,000 | Portuguese Empire | 1900 | 1925 | 25 years | [402] |
バルバリア奴隷貿易 | 245,000 | 380,000 | 305,123 | Italy, Spain, and Portugal | 1500s | 1600s | 100 years | [403]– Part of Slavery in the Ottoman Empire |
アマゾンのゴムブームにおける奴隷制 | 250,000 | 250,000 | 250,000 | Amazon, Brazil | 1900 | 1912 | 12 years | [404] |
泰緬鉄道の建設 | [405] | 102,621[405] | 102,621102,621 | Burma | 1943 | 1947 | 4 years |
Forced labour was used in the construction of the Burma Railway. More than 180,000 Southeast Asian civilian labourers (Romusha) and 60,000 Allied prisoners of war (POWs) worked on the railway. Of these, estimates of Romusha deaths are little more than guesses, but probably about 90,000 died. 12,621 Allied POWs died during the construction. The dead POWs included 6,904 British personnel, 2,802 Australians, 2,782 Dutch, and 133 Americans.[405] |
スエズ運河建設 | 30,000 | 120,000 | 67,082 | Egypt, and Sudan | 1859 | 1868 | 9 years | French diplomat Ferdinand de Lesseps had obtained many concessions from Isma'il Pasha, the Khedive of Egypt and Sudan in 1854–56 to build the Suez Canal. Some sources estimate the workforce at 30,000,[406] but others estimate that 120,000 workers died over the ten years of construction due to malnutrition, fatigue, and disease, especially cholera.[407] |
ペルーにおける中国人労働者の強制労働 | [408] | 40,000[409] | 50,05444,746 | Peru | 1849 | 1874 | 26 years | 80,000[408] to 100,000[408][409] Chinese contract laborers, 95% of which were Cantonese and almost all of which were male, were sent mostly to the sugar plantations from 1849 to 1874, during the termination of slavery. They were to provide continuous labor for the coastal guano mines and especially for the coastal plantations where they became a major labor force (contributing greatly to the Peruvian guano boom) until the end of the century. While the coolies were believed to be reduced to virtual slaves, they also represented a historical transition from slave to free labor. A third group of Chinese workers was contracted for the construction of the railway from Lima to La Oroya and Huancayo. Chinese migrants were barred from using cemeteries reserved for Roman Catholics, and were instead buried at pre-Incan burial sites.[410] Between 1849 and 1874 half[408][409] the Chinese population of Peru perished due to abuse, exhaustion, and suicide[409] caused by forced labor.[408][409] |
大日本帝国による連合国軍人捕虜の強制労働 | 35,000 | 35,000 | 35,000 | In and around the Pacific | 1939 | 1945 | 6 years | According to the Japanese military's own record, nearly 25% of 140,000 Allied POWs died while interned in Japanese prison camps, where they were forced to work (U.S. POWs died at a rate of 27%).[411][412] |
FIFAワールドカップに関連したクウェートの人権侵害 | 1,200 | 1,800 | 1,342 | Qatar | 2013 | ongoing | 5 years | Out of at least 100,000 laborers.[413] |
病気・飢餓
[編集]ここでは、人間の行動によって引き起こされた、または悪化させた飢饉や病気の発生について一覧を載せている。
なお、こうした飢饉や病気の中には、部分的には自然が原因であるものもある。
- この一覧は未完成です。加筆、訂正して下さる協力者を求めています。
出来事 | 低い推定 | 高い推定 | 相乗平均[1] | 場所 | 開始 | 終了 | 期間 | 備考 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
中華人民共和国大飢饉 | [414] | 11,600,000[415] | 55,000,00025,258,662 | 中国 | 1958 | 1962 | 4 years | During the Great Leap Forward under Mao Zedong tens of millions of Chinese starved to death.[416] State violence during this period further exacerbated the death toll, and some 2.5 million people were beaten or tortured to death in connection with Great Leap policies.[417] |
第二次世界大戦による病気と飢饉 | 19,000,000 | 28,000,000 | 23,065,130 | 世界全体 | 1939 | 1945 | 6 years | See also: World War II casualties |
イギリス統治下のインドにおける飢饉 | 12,000,000[418] | 51,000,000+[418] | 20,500,000 | インド | 1757 | 1947 | 190 years | Between 12 and 51 million Indians (or even more) died of starvation while India under British rule (East India Company and British Raj). Millions of tonnes of wheat were exported to Britain as famine raged.[418] |
Indian famine of 1896–97 and the Indian famine of 1899–1900 | [419] | 8,400,000[420] | 19,000,00013,700,000 | イギリス領インド帝国 | 1896 | 1900 | 4 years | ENSO famines. See also: Late Victorian Holocausts. |
大日本帝国による飢饉と病気 | 8,136,000 | 14,936,000 | 11,023,579 | 大日本帝国 | 1937 | 1945 | 8 years | Combined death tolls from famine and disease from China, Vietnam, Indonesia, and the Philippines.
|
1876年から79年にかけての中国北部での飢饉 | 要出典] | 9,000,000[13,000,000 | 10,816,650 | 中国 | 1876 | 1879 | 3 years | ENSO famine.
|
1770年のベンガル地方における飢饉 | [421] | 10,000,000[421] | 10,000,00010,000,000 | ベンガル管区 | 1769 | 1773 | 4 years | The famine killed a third of the Bengali population at the time.[422] It is attributed to the policies of the ruling British East India Company.[422] |
Great Famine of 1876–78 | [419] | 6,100,000[423] | 10,320,000[424] |
8,300,000イギリス領インド帝国 | 1876 | 1878 | 2 years | ENSO famine. See also: Late Victorian Holocausts. |
1921年から22年にかけてのロシアでの飢饉 | [425] | 5,000,000[425] | 10,000,0007,071,072 | ソビエト・ロシア | 1921 | 1922 | 1 year | May have been exacerbated by War Communism policies, but it is debatable to which extent.
See also: Droughts and famines in Russia and the Soviet Union, and Russian Civil War, with its policy of War communism, especially prodrazvyorstka. |
日中戦争による飢餓と病気 | 5,000,000 | 10,000,000 | 7,071,068 | 中国 | 1937 | 1945 | 8 years | See also: World War II casualties. |
第一次世界大戦による飢饉と病気 | 5,411,000 | 6,100,000 | 5,745,181 | 世界全体 | 1914 | 1918 | 4 years | See also: World War I casualties. |
1932年から33年にかけてのソ連での飢饉Soviet famine of 1932–33 | 4,000,000 | [426] | 8,000,0005,656,854 | ソ連 | 1932 | 1933 | 1 year | The majority of famine victims were Ukrainian. Many nations, including Ukraine, regard the famine's effect in the Ukraine as a genocide against Ukraine, known as the Holodomor.
2.0[427] – 6.0[428] million: Ukraine 1.00[429] – 1.45 [430]million: Kazakhstan 1[429] million: North Caucasus |
Famine and disease caused by the Second Congo War | 3,800,000 | 5,400,000 | 4,529,901 | アフリカ | 1998 | 2004 | 6 years | Majority of those who died in war perished from famine and disease. |
Iranian famine of 1917–1919 | [431][432] | 2,000,000[433][434] | 10,000,0004,472,136 | イラン | 1917 | 1919 | 3 years | The Persian famine of 1917–1919 was a period of widespread mass starvation and disease in Persia (Iran). The famine took place in the occupied territory of Iran that had declared neutrality. According to the estimates acknowledged, 2–10 million people died of hunger and disease. A variety of factors are commented to have caused and contributed to the famine such as war profiteering, and poor harvests but mainly requisitioning and confiscation of foodstuffs by the occupying Russian and British armies.[435][436] |
Famine and disease caused by Decommunization | [437] | 4,000,000+4,000,000+ | 4,000,000+ | Former States of the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc | 1991 | 2000 | 9 years | Deaths caused by decrease in living conditions in Russia and other former Communist States after the fall of the Soviet Union. |
Bengal famine of 1943 | [438] | 3,000,000[438] | 4,000,0003,464,100 | イギリス領インド帝国 | 1943 | 1944 | 1 year | The Japanese conquest of Burma cut off India's main supply of rice imports,[439] however, war-related administrative policies in British India ultimately helped to cause the massive death toll.[440][441] |
Famine and diseased caused by the Biafran Blockade during Nigeria's Civil War | [442] | 2,000,000[443][444] | 3,000,0002,449,490 | ナイジェリア | 1967 | 1970 | 3 years | More than two million Igbo died from the famine imposed deliberately through blockades during the war. Lack of medicine also contributed. Thousands starved to death daily as the war progressed.[要出典] |
Famine and disease during the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies | [445] | 2,400,0002,400,000 | 2,400,000 | インドネシア | 1944 | 1945 | 1 year | An estimated 2.4 million Indonesians starved to death during the Japanese occupation of Indonesia. The problem was partly caused by failures of the main 1944–45 rice crop, but the main cause was the compulsory rice purchasing system that the Japanese authorities put in place to secure rice for distribution to the armed forces and urban population.[445] |
Soviet famine of 1946–47 | 1,000,000 | 1,500,000 | 1,224,745 | ソ連 | 1946 | 1947 | 1 year | Debated as to whether it was caused by war or government policy. |
苦難の行軍 | [446] | 240,0005,000,000[447] | 1,090,000 | 北朝鮮 | 1994 | 1998 | 4 years | The famine stemmed from a variety of factors. Economic mismanagement and the loss of Soviet support caused food production and imports to decline rapidly. A series of floods and droughts exacerbated the crisis, but were not its direct cause. The North Korean government and its centrally-planned system proved too inflexible to effectively curtail the disaster. Recent research suggests the likely number of excess deaths between 1993 and 2000 was about 330,000.[446][448] |
ジャガイモ飢饉 | [449][450] | 750,000[451] | 1,500,0001,060,660 | アイルランド | 1846 | 1849 | 3 years | Although blight ravaged potato crops throughout Europe during the 1840s, the impact and human cost in Ireland, where a third of the population was significantly dependent on the Irish Lumper potato for food, was exacerbated by a host of political, social and economic factors, which continue to remain the subject of historical debate.[452][453] |
Vietnamese Famine of 1945 | [454] | 400,000[455] | 2,000,000894,427 | ベトナム | 1944 | 1945 | 1 year | The Japanese occupation during World War II caused the famine in North Vietnam.[455] |
Cambodian Holocaust Famine | [456] | 800,000[457] | 950,000871,780 | カンボジア | 1975 | 1979 | 4 years | An estimated 2 million Cambodians lost their lives to murder, forced labor, and famine, perpetrated by the Khmer Rouge, nearly half of which was caused by forced starvation. Came to an end due to invasion by Vietnam in 1979. |
1983–85 famine in Ethiopia | [458] | 400,000[459] | 1,000,000632,456 | エチオピア | 1983 | 1985 | 2 years | The famines that struck Ethiopia between 1961 and 1985, especially the one of 1983–1985, were in large part created by government policies.[458] |
Famine and disease during the Japanese occupation of the Philippines | 336,000 | 336,000 | 336,000 | フィリピン | 1942 | 1945 | 3 years | See also: World War I casualties. |
Cuban War of Independence Famine | 300,000 | [460][461] | 300,000300,000 | キューバ | 1895 | 1898 | 3 years | Most of dead in this war perished from famine and disease. |
Great Famine of Mount Lebanon | 200,000 | 200,000 | 200,000 | レバノン山脈、オスマン帝国 | 1915 | 1918 | 3 years | Around 200,000 people starved to death at a time when the population of Mount Lebanon was estimated at 400,000.[462] The Mount Lebanon famine caused the highest fatality rate by population of World War I. Bodies were piled in the streets, and people were reported to be eating street animals, while some resorted to cannibalism.[463] |
1998 Sudan famine | [464] | 70,00070,000 | 70,000 | スーダン | 1998 | 1998 | ? | The famine was caused almost entirely by human rights abuse and the war in Southern Sudan.[465] |
Famine in Yemen (2016–present) | [466] | 50,000 children[466] | 50,000 children[466] | 50,000 childrenイエメン | 2016 | present | 2 years | The famine was triggered by Saudi Arabia's intervention into the Yemeni Civil War, which is backed by Western powers including the United States.[467] Around 13 million people, or roughly half of the country's population, is facing starvation in what the UN calls "the worst famine in the world in 100 years".[468] |
洪水・地すべり
[編集]ダム、堤防、防潮堤、擁壁の故障など、人間によって部分的に引き起こされた洪水や地すべりを載せる。
- この一覧は未完成です。加筆、訂正して下さる協力者を求めています。
出来事 | 低い推定 | 高い推定 | 相乗平均[1] | 場所 | 開始 | 終了 | 期間 | 備考 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1931年中国大洪水 | 2,500,000[469] |
3,700,000[469] | 3,041,381 | 中国 | 1931 | 1931 | ? | |
1887年黄河洪水 | 900,000[要出典] |
2,000,000[要出典] | 1,341,641 | 中国 | 1887 | 1887 | ? | |
黄河決壊事件 | 893,303[472] | 517,678 | 中国 | 1938 | 1938 | ? | ||
ベトナムからのボートピープル | 560,000[106][473] | 334,664 | タイ湾および太平洋 | 1978 | 1979 | 1年 | ||
1935年長江洪水 | 145,000[要出典] |
145,000[要出典] |
145,000 | 中国 | 1935 | 1935 | ? | |
聖フェリクスの洪水 | 100,000[要出典] | 100,000[要出典] | 100,000 | オランダ | 1530 | 1530 | ? | |
紅河デルタ洪水 | 100,000[要出典] |
100,000[要出典] |
100,000 | 北ベトナム | 1971 | 1971 | ? | |
1911年長江洪水 | 100,000[要出典] |
100,000[要出典] |
100,000 | 中国 | 1911 | 1911 | ? | |
板橋ダム決壊事故 | 26,000[474] |
230,000[475] | 77,330 | 中国 | 1975年8月 |
1975年8月 |
? | |
聖ルチア祭の洪水 | 50,000[要出典] |
80,000[要出典] | 63,246 | オランダ、イングランド | 1287 | 1287 | ? | |
バルガスの悲劇 | 10,000[要出典] |
50,000[要出典] | 22,361 | ベネズエラ | 1999年12月14日 | 1999年12月16日 | 3日 | |
北海大洪水 |
要出典] 2,400[ |
2,400[要出典] |
2,400 | オランダ、イングランド、 スコットランド、ベルギー | 1953年1月31日 |
1953年1月31日 |
1日 | |
ジョンズタウン洪水 | 2,209[要出典] |
2,209[要出典] |
2,209 | アメリカ | 1889年5月31日 | 1889年5月31日 | 1日 |
人身御供・自殺
[編集]- この一覧は未完成です。加筆、訂正して下さる協力者を求めています。
出来事 | 低い推定 | 高い推定 | 相乗平均[1] | 場所 | 開始 | 終了 | 期間 | 備考 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
アステカ文化における人身御供 | [476] | 20,000[477] | 5,000,000316,228 | メキシコ | 14世紀 || 1521 |
200年 | Skull racks: 60,000[478] to 136,000[479] See also: Aztecs | |
中国の商王朝における人身御供 | [480] |
13,00013,000 | 13,000 | 中国 | 1300 BC | 1050 BC | 250年 | Last 250 years of rule |
イラク戦争中の自爆テロ | 12,284 | [481] | 18,000+12,284 | イラク | 2003 | 2019 | 進行中 | See also: Iraqi insurgency (2003–11) and Iraqi Civil War (2014–2017) |
サティ儀式による焼身自殺 | [482] |
7,9417,941 | 7,941 | インド | 1815 | 1828 | 13年 | |
マサダでの集団自殺 | 要出典] | 967[967 | 967 | マサダ | Spring 73 CE ||
Spring 73 CE
|
? | ||
ジョーンズタウン | 909 | 909 | 909 | Jim Jones | ||||
パレスチナの自爆攻撃 | 804 | 804 | 804 | イスラエルおよび | 7月 6, 1989 |
4月 18, 2016 |
27年 | May only include victims
|
暴動
[編集]100人以上が死亡した暴動や事件について載せる。
- この一覧は未完成です。加筆、訂正して下さる協力者を求めています。
出来事 | 死者数 | 国 | 地域 | 年 |
---|---|---|---|---|
インド・パキスタン分離独立 | 200,000–2,000,000 |
英領インド | パンジャーブ、ベンガル地方 | 1947 |
ラ・ビオレンシア | 200,000–300,000 |
コロンビア | 国全体 | 1948–1960 |
1959年のチベット蜂起 | 85,000–87,000 |
チベット | ラサ | 1959 |
ニカの乱 | 30,000 | 東ローマ帝国 | コンスタンティノープル | 532 |
パリ・コミューン | 6,667–20,000 |
フランス | パリ | 1871 |
二・二八事件 | 10,000–30,000 |
中国 | 台湾 | 1947 |
済州島四・三事件 | 14,000–30,000 |
Southern Korea, present-day South Korea | 済州島 | 1948 |
August Uprising | 13,000–15,500 |
ソ連 | ジョージア | 1924 |
エルサルバドル農民蜂起 (1932年) | 10,000–40,000 |
エルサルバドル | 1932 | |
Romanian Peasants' Revolt | 10,000–20,000 |
ルーマニア | 1907 | |
クロンシュタットの反乱 | 10,000 | ロシア | クロンシュタット | 1921 |
1984 anti-Sikh riots | 2,800–8,000 |
インド | ニューデリー | 1984 |
三・一運動 | 7,500 | 日本統治時代の朝鮮 | ソウル | 1919 |
第2次インティファー | 4,179–4,354 |
イスラエル/パレスチナ | 2000–2005 | |
Pitchfork Uprising | 3,800 | ロシア | 1920 | |
イラン革命[483] | 2,781 | イラン | 1979 | |
8888民主化運動 | 3,000–10,000 |
ビルマ/ミャンマー | 1987–1993 | |
第1次インティファーダ | 2,204 | イスラエル/パレスチナ | 1987 | |
バナナの虐殺 | 47–2,000 |
コロンビア | Ciénaga | 1928 |
Santa María School massacre | 2,300 | チリ | イキケ | 1907 |
アッサム運動 | 2,191+ | インド | アッサム | 1979–1985 |
1994年の南アフリカの政権交代での暴力 | [484] | 1,652南アフリカ共和国 | 1994 | |
ルーマニア革命 (1989年) | 1,104 | ルーマニア | ブカレストなどの主要都市 | 1989 |
2009年のボコ・ハラムの蜂起 | 1,000+ | ナイジェリア | バウチ州、ボルノ州、ヨベ州、カノ州 | 2009 |
ジャカルタ暴動 (1998年) | 1,000–1,200 |
インドネシア | ジャカルタ、メダン、スラカルタ | 1998 |
ケニア危機 (2007年-2008年) | [485][486] | 1,000ケニア | 2008 | |
2005年トーゴ民主化運動 | トーゴ | 2005 | ||
1989年のバーガルプル暴動 | 1,000 | インド | バーガルプル | 1989 |
血の日曜日事件 (1905年) | 132–4,000 |
ロシア | サンクトペテルブルク | 1905 |
2010年南キルギス暴動 | 893 | キルギス | 2010 | |
イラン人巡礼者の暴動 | 400 | サウジアラビア | メッカ | 1987 |
アムリットサル事件 | 379–1,526 |
英領インド | アムリトサル | 1919 |
テランガーナ運動 | 360+ | インド | ハイデラバード | 1969 |
ジャスミン革命 | 338 | チュニジア | 2010–2011 | |
六四天安門事件 | 300–10,454 |
中国 | 北京 | 1989 |
Kengir uprising | 700 | ソビエト連邦 | カザフスタン | 1954 |
2018年ニカラグア抗議デモ | [489] | 317ニカラグア | 2018 | |
ゴードン暴動 | 285 | イギリス | 1780 | |
嘆きの壁事件 | 249 | イギリス委任統治領パレスチナ | 1929 | |
2019年スーダンクーデター | [490][491][492] | 229+スーダン | 2018–2019 | |
Military Police of Espírito Santo strike | 215 | ブラジル | エスピリトサント州 | 2017 |
2009年ウイグル騒乱 | 197+ | 中国 | 新疆ウイグル自治区 | 2009 |
5月13日事件 | 196 | マレーシア | クアラルンプール | 1969 |
アンディジャン事件 | 187–1,500 |
ウズベキスタン | アンディジャン | 2005 |
2017年ベネズエラ抗議運動 | 165 | ベネズエラ | 2017 | |
2009年ギニア抗議運動 | 157 | ギニア | コナクリ | 2009 |
光州事件 | 144–2,000 |
韓国 | 光州 | 1980 |
ダーバン暴動 | 142 | 南アフリカ共和国 | ダーバン | 1949 |
2017年ブラジルの刑務所での暴動 | 140+ | ブラジル | 2017 | |
ムハンマドの漫画に対する暴動 | [493] | 139ナイジェリア、リビア、パキスタン、アフガニスタン | 2006 | |
ハルツームの虐殺 | 128 |
スーダン | ハルツーム | 2019 |
タナ川地方での衝突 | 118 |
ケニア | タナ川地方 | 2012–2013 |
カランジル虐殺事件 | 111 | ブラジル | サンパウロ | 1992 |
ユーロマイダン | 121–797 |
ウクライナ | キーウ | 2014 |
ニューヨーク徴兵暴動 | 119–120 |
アメリカ合衆国 | ニューヨーク | 1863 |
ヴァンデミエールの反乱 | 100 | フランス | パリ | 1795 |
刑務所・強制収容所における死者数一覧
[編集]このセクションでは、特定の刑務所、強制収容所または絶滅収容所で発生した死者数をまとめる。ここでの死者数は、収容所内の条件と囚人による殺人や処刑またはその両方によるものを示す。
- この一覧は未完成です。加筆、訂正して下さる協力者を求めています。
発生した場所 | 低い推定 | 高い指定 | 相乗平均[1] | 場所 | 開始 | 終了 | 期間 | 参考 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
アウシュヴィッツ強制収容所 | 800,000 | 1,500,000 | 1,095,445 | Oświęcim, Poland | 1940 | 1945 | 5年 | [494][495] |
トレブリンカ強制収容所 | 700,000 | 1,000,000 | 836,660 | Treblinka, Poland | 1942 | 1943 | 1年 | [496][497] |
ベウジェツ強制収容所 | 480,000 | 600,000 | 536,656 | Bełżec, Poland | 1942 | 1943 | 1年 | [498][499][500] |
ヤセノヴァツ強制収容所 | 100,000 | 700,000 | 264,575 | Croatia | 1941 | 1945 | 4年 | [501][502][503] |
コルィマ鉱山 | 130,000 | 500,000 | 254,951 | Kolyma, Soviet Union | 1932 | 1954 | 22年 | [504] |
シュトゥットホーフ強制収容所 | 85,000 | 85,000 | 85,000 | Stutthof, Poland | 1939 | 1945 | 6年 | See also: Second World War |
スタラ・グラディシュカ強制収容所 | 12,790 | 75,000 | 30,972 | Croatia | 1941 | 1945 | 4年 | Primarily for women and children.[505][506] |
トゥール・スレン | 17,000 | 17,000 | 17,000 | Phnom Penh, Cambodia | 1975 | 1979 | 4年 | [507] |
アンダーソンビル刑務所 | 13,171 | 13,171 | 13,171 | Andersonville, Georgia, United States | 1864 | 1865 | 1年 | [508] |
ツルヴェニ・クルスト集中収容所 | 12,000 | 12,000 | 12,000 | Niš, Serbia | 1941 | 1944 | 3年 | [509] |
エケネス刑務所収容所 | 2,963 | 2,963 | 2,963 | Tammisaari, Finland | 1918 | 1918 | 4ヶ月 | |
エルマイラ刑務所 | 2,963 | 2,963 | 2,963 | Elmira, New York, U.S. | 1864 | 1865 | 1年 | [510] |
シャーク島強制収容所 | 1,032 | [511] | 4,0002,032 | Luderitz, German South-West Africa | 1905 | 1907 | 2年 | The minimum death toll is out of a camp population of 1,795 people, and the maximum total includes those who died in the Luderitz area. |
死者数による政治的指導者一覧
[編集]ここでは、特定の政治指導者が原因となった死者数を載せる。死亡者は国策による国内の状況と、問題の指導者に対して忠実な軍隊による積極的な殺害の両方に起因している。
指導者 | 低い推定 | 高い推定 | 相乗平均[1] | 場所 | 開始 | 終了 | 期間 | 備考 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
毛沢東 | 20,185,000 | 84,929,000[512][33] | 41,404,008 | 中華人民共和国 | 1946 | 1976 | 30 years | Critics of Mao Zedong have argued Mao's China saw unprecedented losses of human life through inhuman economic policies such as the Great Leap Forward, slave labor through the Laogai, violent political purges such as the Cultural Revolution the Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries, and class extermination through land reform The estimate of the minimum death toll is the sum of the minimum estimate of famine dead (11.6 million),[513] land reform and Campaign to Suppress Counterrevilutionaries dead (200,000),[514] China Civil War (8,000,000) and Cultural Revolution dead (400,000)[330] plus the minimum killed in the 1959 Tibetan uprising (85,000 to 87,000)
|
チンギス・カン | [3] | 30,000,000[4][5][6][7][8][9][10] | 57,000,00041,352,146 | ユーラシア | 1206 | 1227 | 21 years | The number of the death toll containes the result of the conquests of Mongol Empire which he started and passed down to his descendants. |
アドルフ・ヒトラー | [515][516][517][518][519] | 35,740,000[515][520][521][518][519] | 45,759,69240,440,715 | ナチスドイツ下のヨーロッパ | 1934 | 1945 | 11 years | The estimate includes number of deaths in Europe under Nazi rule (excluding Italian military deaths) and Soviet famine in 1946-1947 and Fight and expulsion of Germans.
|
洪秀全 | 10,000,000[16] | 100,000,000[17][18][19] | 31,622,777 | 中国(清) | 1851 | 1864 | 13 years | 「太平天国の乱」も参照 |
安禄山 | 13,000,000[543][544] | 36,000,000[543][544] | 21,633,308 | 中国(唐) | 755 | 763 | 8 years | 「安史の乱」も参照 |
ヨシフ・スターリン | 14,183,790 | 27,159,386 | 19,627,099 | ソビエト連邦 | 1922 | 1953 | 31 years | 彼の直接的な政策による死者数を考えると、
387,333 153,736-194,837 1,124,203-1,912,392 (出典は元記事参照) 200万人
また、彼の間接的な政策による死者数を考えると、 90万[518] 150万~450万[552] スターリンによって成立した他国の共産党政府による死者 ~43.5万[554] ~22万[554] |
ヴィルヘイム2世 | 14,413,868 | ドイツ帝国 | 1888 | 1918 | 30 years | 戦争責任については様々な議論がある。
彼の帝国主義政策によってビスマルク体制を崩壊に導いた。もしドイツが同盟国とともにセルビアに侵攻し、ロシアとの対立をあおらなければ第一次世界大戦は発生しなかったと考えられる。 左の推定は、内政に起因するものが多いオスマン帝国での民間人死者を除いた、第一次世界大戦によるあらゆる犠牲者の合計である。 具体的な数値の根拠は 「第一次世界大戦の犠牲者」を参照 | ||
近衛文麿 | 6,976,197[515][27][28][29] | 22,910,000[515][30][31] | 12,642,178 | 大日本帝国、中華民国臨時政府 | 1937 | 1941 | 4
years |
彼によって決定された中国への派兵・侵攻によって日中戦争が、仏印進駐等による日米関係の悪化によって太平洋戦争が勃発する主要因となった。
左の推定は、日中戦争におけるすべての犠牲者と、太平洋戦争における日米軍の犠牲者を合わせたものである。 ただ中国国民政府によって引き起こされた黄河決壊といった、日本政府の政策に関係のない事件の犠牲者は分は除いた。 また、日本の戦争責任については未だに様々な議論がある。 |
ティムール | 8,000,000[23][24] | 17,000,000[25][26] | 11,661,904 | ティムール朝 | 1370 | 1405 | 35 years | |
蔣介石 | [33] | 5,965,000[33] | 18,522,00010,511,124 | 中華民国 | 1928 | 1946 | 18 years | Primarily from conscription campaigns but also grain confiscations and other atrocities.
|
ニコライ2世 | 9,994,180 | 10,437,549 | 10,213,458 | ロシア帝国 | 1868 | 1918 | 50 years | 戦争責任については様々な議論がある。
ロシア帝国は、彼の統治下でフランスと同盟を結びながら中央同盟国と敵対し、先頭によって多くの犠牲者を生んだ。(第一次世界大戦、オスマン帝国の第一次世界大戦への参戦(英語版)、ロシア帝国の第一次世界大戦への参戦(英語版)の記事も参照) また、南下政策によって日露戦争の原因も作った。 左の推定は、第一次世界大戦におけるロシア、フランス、ドイツ、オーストリア=ハンガリーにおける戦没者、オスマン帝国における戦死者、および日露戦争での戦死者も含む。 また、具体的な犠牲者数の根拠は「第一次世界大戦の犠牲者」も参照 |
ウラジミール・レーニン | 1,250,000[558] | 15,000,000[559] | 4,330,127 | ソ連 | 1917 | 1924 | 7 years | 「ロシア革命」、「ロシア内戦」、「ロシア飢饉(1921-1922)」も参照 |
フェルディナンド2世 | 4,000,000[35] | 12,000,000[35] | 6,928,203 | 神聖ローマ帝国 | 1619 | 1637 | 18 yeas | 「三十年戦争」も参照 |
レオポルド2世 | [注釈 4] | 3,000,000[389] | 13,000,0006,244,998 | コンゴ自由国 | 1885 | 1908 | 13 years | Private forces under the control of Leopold II of Belgium carried out mass murders, mutilations, and other crimes against the Congolese in order to encourage the gathering of valuable raw materials, principally rubber. Significant deaths also occurred due to major disease outbreaks and starvation, caused by population displacement and poor treatment.[390] Estimates of the death toll vary considerably due to the lack of a formal census before 1924, but a commonly cited figure of 10 million deaths was obtained by estimating a 50% decline in the total population during the Congo Free State and applying it to the total population of 10 million in 1924.[391] See also: Atrocities in the Congo Free State |
東条英機 | 7,390,000[515] | 大東亜共栄圏
(大日本帝国) |
1941 | 1944 | 3 years | 左記の推定値は彼が主導した太平洋戦争において新たに占領した地域での死者数のうち、イギリスによる影響が強かったインドでの死者を除いたものである。 | ||
アウラングゼーブ | 5,000,000 | ムガル帝国 | 1658 | 1707 | 49 years | 「デカン戦争」も参照 | ||
ナポレオン・ボナパルト | 3,500,000 | 7,000,000 | 4,949,747 | フランス帝国 | 1803 | 1815 | 13
years |
「 ナポレオン戦争」も参照 |
エルナン・コルテス | 729,000 | 24,300,000 | 4,208,883 | スペイン帝国 | 1519 | 1547 | 28 years | 具体的な数値はわからないが、彼が征服したアステカメキシコにおいて2430万人の原住民が減少し(ここから最大推定値を計算)、少なくともその3%が病気以外によるものである[560]ことから最低推定値を計算した。
「コンキスタドール」、「スペインによるアステカ王国の征服」も参照 |
ローラン・カビラ | 2,738,000[40] | 6,285,000 | 4,148,292 | コンゴ民主共和国 | 1997 | 2001 | 4 years | 「第一次・第二次コンゴ戦争」も参照 |
金日成 | 1,900,000 | 6,000,000 | 3,376,389 | 北朝鮮 | 1949 | 1994 | 55 years | 朝鮮戦争
150万~450万[552] 強制収容所 (死後後継者によって行われた分も含む) |
ポル・ポト | 1,816,734 | 4,030,000 | 2,705,815 | カンボジア | 1963
(党書記長就任) |
1985
(反ベトナム同盟辞職) |
22 years | カンボジア大虐殺
犠牲者数:1,386,738[163] ~3,400,000[164] (Deaths due to arbitrary torture, execution, starvation, and forced labor among the population of Cambodia under the rule of Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge, including both killings of ethnic Khmer (the majority ethnic group) as well as a genocide of religious and ethnic minorities by the Khmer Rouge. Minimum death toll is the number of corpses found in the Killing Fields.[要出典]) |
ラダマ1世 | 2,500,000 | 2,500,000 | 2,500,000 | マダガスカル | 1829 | 1842 | 13 years | Putting an end to most foreign trade relationships, Ranavalona I pursued a policy of self-reliance, made possible through frequent use of the long-standing tradition of fanompoana—forced labor in lieu of tax payments in money or goods. Ranavalona continued the wars of expansion conducted by her predecessor, Radama I, in an effort to extend her realm over the entire island, and imposed strict punishments on those who were judged as having acted in opposition to her will. Due in large part to loss of life throughout the years of military campaigns, high death rates among fanompoana workers, and harsh traditions of justice under her rule, the population of Madagascar is estimated to have declined from around 5 million to 2.5 million between 1833–39, and from 750,000 to 130,000 between 1829–42 in Imerina.[566] These statistics have contributed to a strongly unfavorable view of Ranavalona's rule in historical accounts.[567] |
ウィンストン・チャーチル | 1,500,000[515] | 4,000,000[440][441] | 2,449,490 | イギリス | 1940 | 1945 | 6 years | War-related administrative policies in India by him ultimately helped to cause the massive death toll (Bengal famine).[440][441] |
リンドン・ジョンソン | 966,000[46] | 3,800,000[47] | 2,383,000 | アメリカ | 1963 | 1969 | 6 years | 「ベトナム戦争」も参照 |
金正日 | 760,000 | 5,600,000 | 2,063,008 | 北朝鮮 | 1993 | 2011 | 18 years | 苦難の行軍による死者数
60万[446] ~500万[447]
強制収容所での死者数 (左の推定では上記の期間における死者数が毎年同じだと仮定して、1993年~2011年における死者数を有効数字2桁で概算した) また、現在まで続く北朝鮮の状況については「北朝鮮人権問題」も参照 |
タラート・パシャ | 1,489,000 | 2,810,000 | 2,045,505 | オスマン帝国 | 1913 | 1918 | 5 years | Under the Young Turks' regime whose leader is him, the Ottoman Empire committed various genocides and ethnic cleansings. The death toll is derived from the sum of the death tolls of the Armenian Genocide (800,000 to 1,500,000), Assyrian Genocide (150,000 to 300,000), Greek Genocide (289,000 to 750,000), ethnic cleansing of the Thracian Bulgarians in 1913 (50,000 to 60,000), and the Great Famine of Mount Lebanon (200,000). |
ヤクブ・ゴウォン | 2,045,000 | 2,075,000 | 2,059,945 | ナイジェリア | 1966 | 1975 | 9 years | 「ビアフラ戦争」も参照 |
シャルル十世 | 1,380,000 | 2,980,000 | 2,027,905 | フランス王国 | 1824 | 1830 | 6 years | アルジェリア侵略で98万~148万、また、それによってのちに引き起こされたアルジェリア戦争によって
40~150万人が犠牲になった。 具体的な数値の根拠は各記事を参照 |
レオニード・ブレジネフ | 2,015,000 | 2,015,000 | 2,015,000 | ソビエト連邦 | 1964 | 1982 | 18 years | 「アフガニスタン紛争」も参照 |
豊臣秀吉 | 1,000,000[57] | 3,440,000[568] | 1,854,724 | 日本 | 1591 | 1599 | 8 years | これは、豊臣秀吉によって行われた文禄・慶長の役の犠牲者のみについて記したものであり、天下統一までに行われた先頭による死者は、せいとうぼうえいとして含まないとする。 |
ハーバート・ヘンリー・アスキス | 1,796,597 | イギリス帝国 | 1908 | 1916 | 8 yeas | 左の推定は、第一次世界大戦への参戦による自国とアフリカ戦線における犠牲者の合計。
詳しい数値の根拠は 「第一次世界大戦の犠牲者」も参照 | ||
オマル・アル=バシール | 1,063,000 | 2,530,000 | 1,639,936 | スーダン | 1989 | 2019 | 29 years | 1 to 2 million: Second Sudanese Civil War
63,000 to 530,000:[569]Darfur genocide |
スハルト | 680,500 | 3,418,000+ | 1,525,106+ | インドネシア | 1965 | 1998 | 33 years | 65/66 Politicide: 500,000 to 3,000,000 "communists" East Timor Atrocities: 60,000 to 308,000 East Timorese West Papua Atrocities: 100,000 papuans Petrus Killings: 2,000 to 10,000 suspected criminals |
フランシスコ・ピサロ | 256,350 | 8,582,000 | 1,483,238 | スペイン帝国 | 1531 | 1541 | 10 years | 具体的な数値はわからないが、彼が大半を征服した、現在のチリ、ペルー、ボリビアにあたる地域において、854.5万~858.2万人の原住民が減少し、(最大推定値はこれを用いた)少なくともその3%が病気以外によるものである[560]ことから最低推定値を計算した。
「コンキスタドール」、「スペインによるアステカ王国の征服」も参照 |
ガイウスユリウスカエサル | 1,460,000 | 古代ローマ | 紀元前
61 |
紀元前
44 |
17 years | 「ガリア戦争」も参照 | ||
シャカ・ズールー | 1,000,000 | 2,000,000 | 1,414,214 | 南アフリカ | 1816 | 1828 | 12 years | 「Mfecane」も参照 |
メンギスツ・ハイレ・マリアム | [570][571] | 1,400,000エチオピア | 1977 | 1987 | 10 years | 1983-1985エチオピア飢饉(英語版)、
エチオピア内戦も参照 | ||
アッピウス・クラウディウス・カウデクス | 1,170,000 | 1,260,000 | 1,214,166 | 古代ローマ | 紀元前
264 |
? | 第一次ポエニ戦争を扇動し、それがその後の第二次ポエニ戦争の原因にもなった。また、高い推定は、傭兵戦争のカルタゴ反乱軍の兵士数も含む。 | |
ヤヒヤー・ハーン | 400,000 | 3,600,000 | 1,200,000 | パキスタン | 1969 | 1971 | 2 years | 「バングラデシュ独立戦争」も参照 |
張献忠 | 1,000,000[572] | 1,000,000[572] | 1,000,000 | 中国(明) | 1644 | 1646 | 2 years | |
杜文秀 | 1,000,000 | 中国(清) | 1856 | 1873 | 17 years | 「パンゼーの乱(英語版)」も参照 | ||
Bagosora | 750,000[573] | 1,174,000[574] | 938,349 | ルワンダ | 1994 | 1994 | 1 years | 「ルワンダ虐殺」も参照 |
チャールズ1世 | 876,000 | 876,000 | 876,000 | ブリテン諸島 | 1629 | 1649 | 20 years | 圧政により三国戦争を起こさせ、彼が拒否した立憲君主制が成立するまで多くの人が犠牲となった。
上述の「清教徒革命」も参照 |
フェルディナンド1世 | 700,000 | ルーマニア王国 | 1914 | 1927 | 13 years | 左の推定は、第一次世界大戦への参戦による自国の犠牲者数
具体的な数値の根拠は 「第一次世界大戦の犠牲者」も参照 | ||
ニコライ一世 | 615,378 | 673,015 | 643,552 | ロシア帝国 | 1825 | 1855 | 30 years | 「クリミア戦争(英語版)」も参照 |
サダム・フセイン | [575] | 200,000[575] | 2,000,000632,456 | イラク | 1979 | 2003 | 24 years | see Human rights in Ba'athist Iraq#Number of victims |
ホー・チ・ミン | 328,000 | 1,169,000 | 619,219 | ベトナム | 1953 | 1956 | 3 years | land reform in North Vietnam
19.5万~86.5万人 [576] 民衆殺戮(後継者によるものも含む) 13.3万~30.4万人 [577] |
シャルル・ド・ゴール | 597,000 | 597,000 | 597,000 | フランス | 1944 | 1946 | 2 years | 「第1次インドシナ戦争」も参照 |
アンテ・パヴェリッチ
Nikola Mandić |
[578] | 300,000[579] | 1,088,000571,314 | クロアチア[578] | 1941 | 1945 | 4 years | See also: Independent State of Croatia |
アンドレ・マサンガイッサ | 300,500 | 1,025,500 | 555,124 | モザンビーク共和国 | 1977 | 1979 | 2 years | 左の推定は、彼が始めたRENAMOによるモザンビーク内戦における、戦死者、餓死者、RENAMOの虐殺による死者のすべてを合わせたものである。 |
ハドリアヌス | 500,000+[580][581] | 600,000+[580][581] | 547,723 | 古代ローマ | 117 | 138 | 19 years | 「バル・コクバの反乱」も参照 |
サモラ・マシェル | 255,500[197] | 1,150,500[197] | 542,174 | モザンビーク共和国 | 1975 | 1986 | 11 years | 左の推定は、彼が主導したFRELIMOによって行われたモザンビーク内戦における、戦死者、餓死者、およびFRELIMOの弾圧による死者数をすべて合わせたものである。 |
Gessius Florus | 250,000 | 1,100,000 | 524,404 | 古代ローマ | 64 | 66 | 2 years | 「First Jewish–Roman War」も参照 |
バーラージー・バージー・ラーオ | 490,000[582][583][80][81] | 550,000[582][583][80][81] | 519,134 | マラーター王国 | 1740 | 1761 | 21 years | |
アレクサンドロス3世 | 数十万(GPT-4による推定) | アルゲアス朝マケドニア王国 | 紀元前356 | 紀元前323 | 33 years | 以下Copilotによる回答
「一部の歴史家は、アレクサンダー大王の東方遠征による死者数は数十万人にも上ると推測しています。。また、これらの数値は戦闘による死者だけでなく、戦争による飢餓や疫病などによる死者も含んでいます。このような推測は、当時の人口密度、戦闘の規模と頻度、そして戦争の影響を受けた地域の広さなど、多くの要素を考慮に入れています。」 | ||
ウィリアム・マッキンリー | 230,200[64][65][66][67] | 1,024,200[64][68] | 485,562 | アメリカ | 1897 | 1901 | 4 years | 「米比戦争」も参照 |
インノケンティウス三世 | 200,000+ | 1,000,000+ | 447,214+ | ヨーロッパ | 1198 | 1216 | 18 years | 左の数値はアルビジョア十字軍のみによるものであり、第4回十字軍などの他の虐殺は含まない |
ラグージー・ボーンスレー | 400,000+ | マラーター王国
(インド) |
1738 | 1755 | 17 years | 「Maratha invasions of Bengal」も参照 | ||
メフメト4世 | 380,000+[584] | オスマン帝国 | 1648 | 1687 | 39 years | 左の数値は大トルコ戦争による犠牲者についてのみ考えたものである | ||
ベニート・ムッソリーニ | 158,000 | 628,000 | 314,998 | イタリア、リビア、エチオピア、ユーゴスラビア、ギリシア | 1922 | 1945 | 24 years |
|
魯鴻桃 | 250,000[591] | 400,000 | 316,228 | ベトナム | 1072 | 1128 | 56 years | 「Song–Đại Việt war」も参照 |
ジョージ・W・ブッシュ | 244,124 | 266,427 | 255,031 | アメリカ | 2001 | 2009 | 8 years | 彼の引き起こした対テロ戦争によって多くの民間人が巻き込まれた。詳しくはhttp://www.icti-e.com/,http://icta.m-shonan.jp/を参照 |
フランシスコ・フランコ | 195,000 | 265,000 | 227,321 | スペイン、オーストラリア、ロシア | 1939 | 1975 | 36 years | Diseases and starvation: 130,000 (1939–1943) Repression: 30,000–100,000 (1939–1948) Prison camps: 20,000 (1939–1943) Spanish Maquis: 5,548 (1939–1965) World War II: 5,000 (Mauthausen concentration camp in Austria) Blue Division: Casualties in the Russo-German conflict totalled 22,700. In action against the Blue Division, the Red Army suffered 49,300 casualties. |
イディ・アミン | [592][593] | 100,000500,000 | 223,607 | ウガンダ | 1971 | 1979 | 8 years | Idi Amin's rule of Uganda saw excessive and egregious human rights abuses toward ethnic minorities and political opposition, earning him the nickname "The Butcher of Uganda." |
ヨシップ・ブロズ・チトー | [594] | 60,000[595] | 802,000219,363 | ユーゴスラビア | 1944 | 1980 | 36 years | |
オリバー・クロムウェル | 250,000 | 260,000 | 254,951 | アイルランド島 | 1653 | 1658 | 3 years | 「クロムウェルのアイルランド侵略」も参照 |
アブー・バクル・アル=バグダーディー | 232,500+ | イラク | 2014 | 2019 | 5 years | 「イスラム国」、「イラクでの戦い(2013-2017年)」も参照 | ||
李承晩 | 200,00+ | 大韓民国 | 1919 | 1960 | 41 years | 「保導連盟事件」も参照 | ||
クラウディウス | 13[596] | 2,93529 | 2,935197,336 | 古代ローマ | 41 | 54 | 13 years | 左の推定価は、彼の始めたブリテン島の征服(英語版)によるものも含む |
ハリー・S・トルーマン | 150,000[597] | 246,000[597] | 192,094 | アメリカ | 1945 | 1953 | 8 years | 「日本への原子爆弾投下」を参照 |
フェルディナント | 187,500 | ブルガリア | 1887 | 1918 | 28 tears | 第一次世界大戦参戦による自国での死者 | ||
ゲオルゲ・ゲオルギュ=デジ | [553] | 60,000[554] | 435,000161,555 | ルーマニア | 1945 | 1989 | 44 years | 左の推定は、彼が体制を整えたルーマニア共産党政権によるルーマニアの支配によって犠牲となった人の数をすべて含む。 |
イヴァン4世 | [598] |
60,000[599] | 260,000124,900 | ロシア帝国 | 1533 | 1584 | 51 years | |
モハメド・シアド・バーレ | 50,000 | 200,000 | 100,000 | ソマリア | 1988 | 1991 | 3 years | See also: Isaaq genocide |
バッシャール・アサド | [600] | 100,000100,000 | 100,000 | シリア | 2011 | present | 9 years | See also: Syrian Civil War |
フエン・トン・バット | 95,000[601] | 95,000 | 95,000 | 南ベトナム | 1975 | 1976 | 1 years | 「再教育キャンプ」も参照 |
聖宗 | 90,000+ | 契丹
(中国北東部) |
982 | 1031 | 49 years | 「契丹の高麗侵攻」も参照 | ||
ジャン=ベデル・ボカサ | [602] | 90,000中央アフリカ共和国 | 1966 | 1976 | 10 years | |||
サルマン国王 | [603] | 85,00085,000 | 85,000 | サウジアラビア | 2016 | present | 3 years | See also: Famine in Yemen |
ヴルコ・チェルヴェンコフ | [555][556] | 31,000[554] | 220,00081,240 | ブルガリア | 1944 | 1954 | 5 years | 左の推定は、彼が体制を整えたブルガリア共産党政権によるブルガリアの支配によって犠牲となった人の数をすべて含む。 |
ヘンリー8世 | [604] | 72,00072,000 | 72,000 | イングランド | 1509 | 1547 | 38 years | |
徳川家康 | 30,350 | 162,600 | 70,249 | 日本 | 1600 | 1616 | 6 years | 彼が主導した戦いによる死者数 |
ウォルター・ウルブリヒト | 70,000[512] | 70,000[512] | 70,000 | 東ドイツ | 1950 | 1971 | 21 years | 左の推定は、彼が体制を整えたドイツ社会主義統一党政権による東ドイツの支配によって犠牲となった人の数をすべて含む。 |
ヴラド3世 | [608][609] | 43,903[610] | 100,00066,259 | ワラキア | 1456 | 1462 | 6 years | |
クレメント・ゴットワルト | [554] | 65,000[554] | 65,00065,000 | チェコスロバキア | 1948 | 1968 | 20 years | 左の推定は、彼が主導した1948年の政変によって成立した共産主義体制による犠牲者をすべて含む。 |
フランシスコ・マシアス・ンゲマ | [611] | 50,000[611] | 80,00063,246 | 赤道ギニア | 1968 | 1979 | 11 years | Macías Nguema is regarded as one of the most kleptocratic, corrupt, and dictatorial leaders in post-colonial African history. Sources vary, but he was responsible for the deaths of anywhere from 50,000 to 80,000 of the 300,000 to 400,000 people living in the country at the time.[要出典] |
ラファエル・トルヒーヨ | [612][613][614] | 50,000[612][613][614] | 50,00050,000 | ドミニカ共和国 | 1930 | 1938 | 8 years | |
フランソワ・デュヴァリエ | [615] | 30,000[615] | 60,00042,426 | ハイチ | 1957 | 1971 | 14 years | Duvalier's rule based on a purged military, a rural militia known as the Tonton Macoute, and the use of cult of personality, resulted in the murder of 30,000 to 60,000 Haitians, and the exile of many more.[要出典] |
イッセン・ハブレ | 40,000 | 40,000 | 40,000 | チャド | 1982 | 1990 | 8 years | In May 2016, Hissène Habré was found guilty of human-rights abuses, including rape, sexual slavery, and ordering the killing of 40,000 people. He was sentenced to life in prison. He is the first former head of state to be convicted for human rights abuses in the court of another nation.[616] |
ティベリウス | 38,000[617] | 古代ローマ | 14 | 37 | 23 years | |||
松倉勝家 | 28,130 | 42,712 | 34,662 | 島原藩
(江戸幕府) |
1630 | 1638 | 8 years | 「島原の乱」も参照 |
フェデル・カストロ | [618] | 9,240[618] | 92,40029,219 | キューバ | 1961 | 2006 | 45 years | Human rights in Cuba are under the scrutiny of Human Rights Watch, which accuses the Cuban government of systematic human rights abuses. This includes offenses such as arbitrary imprisonment, unfair trials, and extrajudicial execution.[619][620] |
ホメイニ師 | 10,482 | 48,000 | 22,431 | イラン | 1979 | 1989 | 10 years | 4,482 to 30,000 in P.O.C. massacre 6,000 to 18,000 child soldiers killed (refer to earlier tables on page) |
ボレスワフ・ビエルト | [557] | 22,00022,000 | 22,000 | ポーランド人民共和国 | 1948 | 1956 | 44 years | ポーランド統一労働者党初代党首
左の推定は、民主化(1987年)までのすべての犠牲者も含む。 |
トマス・デ・トルケマダ | [621] | 2,000[622] | 124,62115,787 | スペイン帝国 | 1480 | 1498 | 18 years | Minimum death toll only includes lowest estimate of those burned at the stake, whereas the maximum death toll also includes those who died from hunger and torture. |
ラーコシ・マーチャーシュ | 2 | 7,000[554] | 27,00013,748 | ハンガリー | 1948 | 1956 | 8 years | 150,000 perished in concentration camps, and only counts the 5,000 alleged spies and 2,000 party members executed, noting that 5,000 spies came from only 98,000 out of 700,000 alleged spies.[623][624]「ハンガリー共産党」も参照 |
エンヴェル・ホッジャ | 5,000 | 28,000 | 11,832 | アルバニア | 1941 | 1985 | 44 years | |
ダニエル・フランソワ・マラン | [625] |
18,99721,000 | 19,999 | 南アフリカ | 1948 | 1954 | 6 years | 左の推定は、彼が確立させたアパルトヘイト政策による犠牲者数の推定。 |
フェルディナンド・マルコス | [626] | 3,257[627] | 80,00016,142 | Philippines | 1965 | 1986 | 21 years | The conservative estimate is recorded from 1975 to 1985, while the maximum estimate is recorded from 1965 to 1976. Also Includes those from the Moro conflict. |
ティベリウス | [628] |
9,5009,500 | 9,500 | 古代ローマ | 14 | 37 | 23 years | |
カリグラ | [628] | 9,0009,000 | 9,000 | 古代ローマ | 37 | 41 | 4 years | |
ジョニー・ポール・コロマ | [628] | 6,0006,000 | 6,000 | シエラレオネ | 1997 | 1998 | 1 year | |
ネロ | [628] | 5,7505,750 | 5,750 | 古代ローマ | 54 | 68 | 14 years |
脚注
[編集]注釈
[編集]- ^ These death toll estimates vary due to lack of consensus as to the demographic size of the native population pre-Columbus, which some say might never be accurately determined. Modern scholarship tend to side with the higher estimates, but there is still variance based on calculation methods used. Even using conservative populations estimates, however, "one dreadful conclusion is inescapable: the 150 years after Columbus's arrival brought a toll on human life in this hemisphere comparable to all of the world's losses during World War II. ... Against the alien agents of disease, the indigenous people never had a chance. Their immune systems were unprepared to fight smallpox and measles, malaria and yellow fever. The epidemics that resulted have been well documented."[13] A small industry of researchers in recent years have focused their attention on Native American population size in 1492, and the subsequent decimation of the population after contact with Europeans.[14] They have stated that their findings in no way diminish the "dreadful impact Old World diseases had on the people of the New World. But it suggests that the New World was hardly a healthful Eden." For example, they note that as the previously thriving indigenous peoples became more urbanized and less mobile, they succumbed to the same declining sanitation and health conditions of other urban cultures, including tuberculosis. The researchers stress, however, that "their findings in no way mitigated the responsibility of Europeans as bearers of disease devastating to native societies."[13]
- ^ While there are many estimates for civilian deaths, with some even going well over a million for the war, modern historians generally place the death toll between 200,000 and 250,000; see "Casualties".
- ^ The Casement estimate is used by Ascherson in his book The King Incorporated, although he notes that it is "almost certainly an underestimate".[388]
- ^ The Casement estimate is used by Ascherson in his book The King Incorporated, although he notes that it is "almost certainly an underestimate".[388]
出典
[編集]- ^ a b c d e f g h Pinto, Carla M. A.; Lopes, A. Mendes; Machado, J.A. Tenreiro (2014). Ferreira, Nuno Miguel Fonseca; Machado, José António Tenreiro (eds.). "Casualties Distribution in Human and Natural Hazards". Mathematical Methods in Engineering. Springer Netherlands: 173–180. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7183-3_16. ISBN 978-94-007-7182-6。
- ^ Fink, George (2010). Stress of War, Conflict and Disaster. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-381382-4。
- ^ a b The Cambridge History of China: Alien regimes and border states, 907–1368, 1994, pg. 622, cited by White
- ^ a b c Ping-ti Ho, "An Estimate of the Total Population of Sung-Chin China", in Études Song, Series 1, No 1, (1970) pp. 33–53.
- ^ a b McEvedy, Colin; Jones, Richard M. (1978). Atlas of World Population History. New York, NY: Puffin. p. 172. ISBN 9780140510768.
- ^ a b Graziella Caselli, Gillaume Wunsch, Jacques Vallin (2005). "Demography: Analysis and Synthesis, Four Volume Set: A Treatise in Population". Academic Press. p.34. ISBN 0-12-765660-X
- ^ a b "Mongol Siege of Kaifeng | Summary". Encyclopedia Britannica (英語). 2019年2月4日閲覧。
- ^ a b Wheelis M. Biological Warfare at the 1346 Siege of Caffa. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2002;8(9):971–975. doi:10.3201/eid0809.010536.
- ^ a b Morgan, D. O. (1979). The Mongol Armies in Persia. Der Islam, 56(1), 81–96.
- ^ a b Halperin, C. J. (1987). Russia and the Golden Horde: the Mongol impact on medieval Russian history (Vol. 445). Indiana University Press.
- ^ "Pre-Columbian Population" (PDF). 2016年1月7日時点のオリジナル (PDF)よりアーカイブ。2016年1月7日閲覧。
- ^ a b American Philosophy: From Wounded Knee to the Present; Erin McKenna, Scott L. Pratt; Bloomsbury; 2015, pg. 375; "It is also apparent that the shared history of the hemisphere is one framed by the dual tragedies of genocide and slavery, both of which are part of the legacy of the European invasions of the past 500 years. Indigenous people north and south were displaced, died of disease, and were killed by Europeans through slavery, rape and war. In 1491, about 145 million people lived in the western hemisphere. By 1691, the population of indigenous Americans had declined by 90–95 percent."
- ^ a b "Don't Blame Columbus for All the Indians' Ills". The New York Times. 29 October 2002.
- ^ Richard H. Steckel and Jerome C. Rose: The Backbone of History Health and Nutrition in the Western Hemisphere, Cambridge University Press; 1st edition; pg. 79; ISBN 9780521617444
- ^ Koch, Alexander; Brierley, Chris; Maslin, Mark M.; Lewis, Simon L. (2019). "Earth system impacts of the European arrival and Great Dying in the Americas after 1492". Quaternary Science Reviews. 207: 13–36. Bibcode:2019QSRv..207...13K. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2018.12.004。
- ^ a b Werner, Gruhl (2007). Imperial Japan's World War Two: 1931–1945. Transaction Publishers. p. 181. ISBN 978-0-7658-0352-8。
- ^ a b "The Taiping Rebellion 1850–1871 Tai Ping Tian Guo". Taipingrebellion.com. 2013年8月23日閲覧。
- ^ a b Livre noir du Communisme: crimes, terreur, répression, page 468.
- ^ a b William J. Gingles, By Train to Shanghai: A Journey on the Trans-Siberian Railway, pg. 259
- ^ Alan Macfarlane (28 May 1997). The Savage Wars of Peace: England, Japan and the Malthusian Trap. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-18117-0。
- ^ Nash (1976). Darkest Hours. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 775. ISBN 978-1-59077-526-4。
- ^ http://www.centre-robert-schuman.org/userfiles/files/REPERES%20%E2%80%93%20module%201-1-1%20-%20explanatory%20notes%20%E2%80%93%20World%20War%20I%20casualties%20%E2%80%93%20EN.pdf[PDFファイルの名無しリンク][リンク切れ]
- ^ a b White, Matthew. "Timur Lenk (1369–1405)". Necrometrics. 2011年1月24日閲覧。
- ^ a b White, Matthew. "Miscellaneous Oriental Atrocities". Necrometrics. 2011年1月24日閲覧。
- ^ a b "The Rehabilitation Of Tamerlane". Chicago Tribune. 17 January 1999.
- ^ a b J.J. Saunders (1971). The History of the Mongol Conquests. Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. p. 174. ISBN 0-8122-1766-7。
- ^ a b 中華民國行政院賠償委員會 (1947年5月20日) (中国語), 中華民國行政賠償委員會在第四屆國民參政會第三次大會上的報告. 前揭1946年中華民國國防部調查
- ^ a b 國祥 (1995年3月). “關於抗日戰爭中我國軍民傷亡數字問題” (中国語). 抗日戰爭研究 (03期).
- ^ a b 太平洋戦争研究会、森山康平『図説 日中戦争』河出書房新社、2000年,p172
- ^ a b 解放軍軍事科学院軍歴史研究部、中国抗日戦争史・下巻
- ^ a b 『戦争: 中国侵略.』読売新聞社、pp. 186頁。
- ^ Michael Lynch (2010). The Chinese Civil War 1945–49. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84176-671-3。
- ^ a b c d e R.J. Rummel. "CHINA'S BLOODY CENTURY". 2023年3月13日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2023年3月13日閲覧。
- ^ "Russian Civil War". Spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk. 2010年12月5日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2013年8月23日閲覧。
- ^ a b c "The Thirty Years War Produced Astonishing Casualties". Civilian Military Intelligence Group. 10 August 2016. 2018年2月4日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2018年2月4日閲覧。
- ^ "The Thirty Years War (1618–48)". Users.erols.com. 2013年8月23日閲覧。
- ^ http://necrometrics.com/wars19c.htm#Napoleonic
- ^ Charles Esdaile, Napoleon's Wars: An International History.
- ^ a b "Mankind's Worst Wars and Armed Conflicts". 2010年12月7日閲覧。
- ^ a b Bethany Lacina and Nils Petter Gleditsch, "Monitoring Trends in Global Combat: A New Dataset of Battle Deaths," European Journal of Population (2005) 21: 145–66.
- ^ "Congo war-driven crisis kills 45,000 a month-study" – Reuters, 22 Jan 2008.
- ^ a b Lacina, Bethany (September 2009). "The PRIO Battle Deaths Dataset, 1946-2008, Version 3.0" (PDF). Peace Research Institute Oslo. pp. 359–362. 2019年8月30日閲覧。
- ^ "Huguenot Religious Wars, Catholic vs. Huguenot (1562–1598)". Users.erols.com. 2013年8月23日閲覧。
- ^ Philip Pregill (25 January 1999). Landscapes in History. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-29328-6。
- ^ Frederic Baumgartner (14 November 1995). France in the Sixteenth Century. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-15856-9。
- ^ a b Hirschman, Charles; Preston, Samuel; Loi, Vu Manh (December 1995). "Vietnamese Casualties During the American War: A New Estimate" (PDF). Population and Development Review. 21 (4): 783–812.
- ^ a b Obermeyer, Ziad; Murray, Christopher J.L.; Gakidou, Emmanuela (26 June 2008). "Fifty years of violent war deaths from Vietnam to Bosnia: analysis of data from the world health survey programme". The BMJ. 336 (7659): 1482–1486. doi:10.1136/bmj.a137. PMC 2440905. PMID 18566045。
- ^ John Shertzer Hittell, "A Brief History of Culture" (1874) p.137: "In the two centuries of this warfare one million persons had been slain..." cited by White
- ^ Robertson, John M., "A Short History of Christianity" (1902) pg. 278. Cited by White
- ^ Matthew White (2012). The Great Big Book of Horrible Things: The Definitive Chronicle of History's 100 Worst Atrocities. W. W. Norton. pp. 529–530. ISBN 978-0-393-08192-3。
- ^ "Shaka: Zulu Chieftain". Historynet.com. 2008年2月9日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2013年8月23日閲覧。
- ^ Nigel Bagnall., "The Punic Wars", June 23, 2005.
- ^ "Sudan: Nearly 2 million dead as a result of the world's longest running civil war". 2004年12月10日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2004年12月10日閲覧。, U.S. Committee for Refugees, 2001. Archived December 10, 2004 on the Internet Archive. Retrieved April 10, 2007
- ^ [Documentary] Qin Dynasty (221 – 206 BC) -Terracotta Army 秦兵马俑 - YouTube
- ^ Derk Bodde, China's First Unifier: A Study in the Ch'in Dynasty as Seen in the Life of Li Ssu, 280? – 208 BC, Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1967, pp. 5–6.
- ^ Chris Peers estimates that 1,500,000 were killed before the last campaign in 230–221 BC, Warlords of China, 700 BC to AD 1662, London: Arms and Armour, 1998, pg. 59.
- ^ a b Pang., Loretta『Horizons. History 241W: Asian History from the 15th Century to Present.』Kapiolani Community College、1997年。
- ^ a b "Death Tolls for the Major Wars and Atrocities of the Twentieth Century". Necrometrics.com. 2012年9月24日閲覧。
- ^ a b Buchenau, Jürgen (2005). Mexico Otherwise: Modern Mexico in the Eyes of Foreign Observers. UNM Press. p. 285. ISBN 0-8263-2313-8。
- ^ Horne, Alistair (1978). A Savage War of Peace. pp. 538. ISBN 0-670-61964-7。
- ^ Jurg Meister, Francisco Solano López Nationalheld oder Kriegsverbrecher?, Osnabrück: Biblio Verlag, 1987. 345, 355, 454–55
- ^ Another estimate is that from the pre-war population of 1,337,437, the population fell to 221,709 (28,746 men, 106,254 women, 86,079 children) by the end of the war (War and the Breed, David Starr Jordan, pg. 164. Boston, 1915; Applied Genetics, Paul Popenoe, The Macmillan Company, New York, 1918)
- ^ a b c Crawford, Neta C. (November 2018). "Human Cost of the Post-9/11 Wars: Lethality and the Need for Transparency" (PDF). Brown University en:Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs. 2023年10月6日閲覧。
- ^ a b c d Hack, Karl; Rettig, Tobias (2006). Colonial Armies in Southeast Asia (Routledge Studies in the Modern History of Asia). Abingdon-on-Thames, United Kingdom: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-33413-6. p.172
- ^ a b Aguinaldo, E. (2016). A Second Look at America (Classic Reprint). Fb&c Limited. p. 131. ISBN 978-1-333-84114-0. Retrieved November 17, 2022.
- ^ a b Ramsey, Robert D. III (2007). Savage Wars of Peace: Case Studies of Pacification in the Philippines, 1900–1902 (PDF). United States Army Combined Arms Center, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: Combat Studies Institute Press. ISBN 978-0-16-078950-2. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 16, 2019. Retrieved December 11, 2016. p.103
- ^ a b Smallman-Raynor, Matthew; Cliff, Andrew D. (1998). "The Philippines insurrection and the 1902–4 cholera epidemic: Part I—Epidemiological diffusion processes in war". Journal of Historical Geography. 24 (1): 69–89. doi:10.1006/jhge.1997.0077.
- ^ a b Valentino, Benjamin A. (2005). Final solutions: mass killing and genocide in the twentieth century (1. print ed.). Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-7273-2
- ^ Hagopian, Amy; Flaxman, Abraham D.; Takaro, Tim K.; Esa Al Shatari, Sahar A.; Rajaratnam, Julie; Becker, Stan; Levin-Rector, Alison; Galway, Lindsay; Hadi Al-Yasseri, Berq J.; Weiss, William M.; Murray, Christopher J.; Burnham, Gilbert; Mills, Edward J. (15 October 2013). "Mortality in Iraq Associated with the 2003–2011 War and Occupation: Findings from a National Cluster Sample Survey by the University Collaborative Iraq Mortality Study". PLOS Medicine. 10 (10): e1001533. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001533. PMC 3797136. PMID 24143140。
- ^ Bix, Herbert Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan, New York, Perennial, 2001 page 365
- ^ Valentino, Benjamin A. Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twentieth Century, Cornell University Press, page 88, December 8, 2005.
- ^ Rummel, Rudolph (1994), Death by Government.
- ^ "Genocides, Politicides, and Other Mass Murder Since 1945, With Stages in 2008". gpanet.org. 2017年11月7日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2018年8月2日閲覧。
- ^ Noor Ahmad Khalidi, "Afghanistan: Demographic Consequences of War: 1978–87," Central Asian Survey, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 101–126, 1991.
- ^ Marek Sliwiński, "Afghanistan: The Decimation of a People", Orbis (Winter, 1989), pg. 39.
- ^ Dillon, Michael (1998). China: A Cultural and Historical Dictionary. Routledge. p. 379. ISBN 978-0-7007-0439-2。 from J.B. Parsons, The Peasant Rebellions of the Late Ming Dynasty (University of Arizona Press), 1970.
- ^ Andre Wink, Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World, Vol 2 (Brill, 2002), pg. 13. (要購読契約)
- ^ The different aspects of Islamic culture: Science and technology in Islam, Vol.4, Ed. A. Y. Al-Hassan, (Dergham sarl, 2001), pg. 655.
- ^ Barenblatt, Daniel (2004). A plague upon humanity : the secret genocide of Axis Japan's germ warfare operation (1st ed.). New York: HarperCollins Publishers. pp. xii, 173. ISBN 0060186259. OCLC 52348888。
- ^ a b c d e P. J. Marshall (2006). Bengal: The British Bridgehead: Eastern India 1740–1828. Cambridge University Press. p. 73. ISBN 978-0-521-02822-6。
- ^ a b c d e Kirti N. Chaudhuri (2006). The Trading World of Asia and the English East India Company: 1660-1760. Cambridge University Press. p. 253. ISBN 978-0-521-03159-2。
- ^ a b Bailey, Norman A. (1967). "La Violencia in Colombia". Journal of Inter-American Studies. Center for Latin American Studies at the University of Miami. 9 (4): 561–75. doi:10.2307/164860. JSTOR 164860。
- ^ Guillermo, Emil (8 February 2004). "A first taste of empire". Milwaukee Journal Sentinel. p. 3J.
- ^ Smallman-Raynor 1998
- ^ Burdeos 2008, p. 14
- ^ White, Matthew. "Death Tolls for the Man-made Megadeaths of the 20th Century". 2007年8月1日閲覧。
- ^ Hodieb Khalifa (2013). Nein. American Book Publishing Group. p. 288. ISBN 978-1-938759-18-5。
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- ^ "Battle of Manila". battleofmanila.org. 2023年4月7日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2023年4月7日閲覧。
- ^ "Estadísticas del conflicto armado en Colombia". 2018年3月4日閲覧。
- ^ a b "Twentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls". necrometrics.com. 2023年10月6日閲覧。
- ^ Donald Greer, The Terror, a Statistical Interpretation, Cambridge (1935)
- ^ a b Reynald Secher, La Vendée-Vengé, le Génocide franco-français (1986)
- ^ Jean-Clément Martin, La Vendée et la France, Éditions du Seuil, collection Points, 1987 he gives the highest estimate of the civil war, including republican losses and premature death. However, he does not consider it as a genocide.
- ^ Jacques Hussenet (dir.), "Détruisez la Vendée! "Regards croisés sur les victimes et destructions de la guerre de Vendée, La Roche-sur-Yon, Centre vendéen de recherches historiques, 2007, p.148.
- ^ Gough, Hugh (December 1987). "Genocide and the Bicentenary: The French Revolution and the Revenge of the Vendee". The Historical Journal. 30 (4): 977–988. doi:10.1017/S0018246X00022433. JSTOR 2639130。
- ^ What justice for Chechnya's disappeared? , AI Index: EUR 46/015/2007, May 23, 2007.
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- ^ Rumel, Rudolph. "Lesser Murdering States, Quasi-States, and Groups: Estimates, Sources, and Calculations". Power Kills. University of Hawai'i.
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- ^ Lewy, Guenter (1980). America in Vietnam. Oxford University Press. p. 272. ISBN 9780199874231。
- ^ a b c Rummel, Rudolph (1997), Statistics of Vietnamese Democide, in his Statistics of Democide, Table 6.1A, line 467 & Table 6.1B, lines 675, 730, 749–51.
- ^ Fluehr-Lobban, Carolyn; Lobban, Richard (Spring 2001). "The Sudan Since 1989: National Islamic Front Rule". Arab Studies Quarterly. 23 (2): 1–9. JSTOR 41858370。
- ^ Gawler, Virginia (19 August 2005). "Report claims secret genocide in Indonesia". University of Sydney. 2016年3月27日閲覧。
"WestPapuaFinal">Brundige, Elizabeth; King, Winter; Vahali, Priyneha; Vladeck, Stephen; Yuan, Xiang (April 2004). "Indonesian Human Rights Abuses in West Papua: Application of the Law of Genocide to the History of Indonesian Control" (PDF). Yale Law School. 2009年2月27日時点のオリジナル (PDF)よりアーカイブ。{{cite web}}
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引数が必須です。 (説明) - ^ Wing, John; King, Peter (August 2005). Genocide in West Papua?: The role of the Indonesian state apparatus and a current needs assessment of the Papuan people (PDF). Sydney: West Papua Project. ISBN 0-9752391-7-1. 2016年3月27日閲覧。
- ^ "India revises Kashmir death toll to 47,000". Reuters. 21 November 2008. 2016年8月28日閲覧。
- ^ "The Human Rights Crisis in Kashmir" (PDF). Human Rights Watch. 2018年8月2日閲覧。
- ^ a b Yoshiaki Itakura, 本当はこうだった南京事件 (Tokyo: Nihon Tosho Kankokai, 1999), 11.
- ^ "400,000 People Killed in Nanjing Massacre: Expert". People's Daily. 26 July 2000.
- ^ Masaaki Tanaka, What Really Happened In Nanking: The Refutation of a Common Myth (Tokyo: Sekai Shuppan, 2000), pg. 64.
- ^ "Informe final. Anexo 2: ¿CUÁNTOS PERUANOS MURIERON? (2003)" (PDF) (スペイン語). Comisión de la Verdad y la Reconciliación. 2018年8月2日閲覧。
- ^ Rendon, Silvio (1 January 2019). "Capturing correctly: A reanalysis of the indirect capture–recapture methods in the Peruvian Truth and Reconciliation Commission". Research & Politics (英語). 6 (1): 2053168018820375. doi:10.1177/2053168018820375. ISSN 2053-1680。
- ^ Rendon, Silvio (1 April 2019). "A truth commission did not tell the truth: A rejoinder to Manrique-Vallier and Ball". Research & Politics (英語). 6 (2): 2053168019840972. doi:10.1177/2053168019840972. ISSN 2053-1680。
- ^ a b Vera Eccarius-Kelly, The Militant Kurds: A Dual Strategy for Freedom, pg. 86, 2010.
- ^ a b Koivunen, Kristiina. "The Invisible War in North Kurdistan" (PDF). ethesis.helsinki.fi (フィンランド語). p. 104. 2017年10月12日時点のオリジナル (PDF)よりアーカイブ。2016年7月1日閲覧。
- ^ Hakan Ozoglu Ph.D. (2011). From Caliphate to Secular State: Power Struggle in the Early Turkish Republic: Power Struggle in the Early Turkish Republic. ABC-CLIO. p. 147. ISBN 978-0-313-37957-4。
- ^ Mehmed S. Kaya (2011). The Zaza Kurds of Turkey: A Middle Eastern Minority in a Globalised Society. I.B.Tauris. p. 64. ISBN 978-1-84511-875-4。
- ^ Patten, Chris (12 January 2010). "Sri Lanka's Choice, and the World's Responsibility". The New York Times. 2011年6月8日閲覧。
- ^ Australian Broadcasting Commission 4 Corners Archived November 13, 2012, at the Wayback Machine.. Retrieved July 4, 2011.
- ^ "Sri Lanka: US War Crimes Report Details Extensive Abuses". Human Rights Watch. 22 October 2009. 2010年1月17日閲覧。
- ^ "LTTE Executed Soldiers". The Sunday Leader. 8 December 2010. 2010年12月12日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2010年1月17日閲覧。
- ^ Warren T. Treadgold (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford University Press. p. 572. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2。
- ^ Hiro, Dilip (1991). The Longest War: The Iran-Iraq Military Conflict. New York: Routledge. p. 205. ISBN 9780415904063. OCLC 22347651。
- ^ Rajaee, Farhang (1997). Iranian Perspectives on the Iran-Iraq War. Gainesville: University Press of Florida. p. 2. ISBN 9780813014760. OCLC 492125659。
- ^ Mikaberidze, Alexander (2011). Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. p. 418. ISBN 9781598843361. OCLC 775759780。
- ^ Hammond Atlas of the 20th Century (1999) P. 134-5
- ^ Dunnigan, A Quick and Dirty Guide to War (1991)
- ^ Jan Palmowski, Dictionary of Twentieth Century World History (Oxford, 1997)
- ^ Clodfelter, Michael, Warfare and Armed Conflict: A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1618–1991
- ^ Chirot, Daniel: Modern Tyrants: the power and prevalence of evil in our age (1994)
- ^ "B&J": Jacob Bercovitch and Richard Jackson, International Conflict: A Chronological Encyclopedia of Conflicts and Their Management 1945–1995 (1997), pg. 195.
- ^ Hill, The University of North Carolina at Chapel. "Death Tolls of the Iran-Iraq War". kurzman.unc.edu. Charles Kurzman. 2018年8月2日閲覧。
- ^ "An Anatomy of the Massacres", Ait-Larbi, Ait-Belkacem, Belaid, Nait-Redjam, and Soltani, in An Inquiry into the Algerian Massacres, ed. Bedjaoui, Aroua, and Ait-Larbi, Hoggar: Geneva 1999.
- ^ "Wanton and Senseless? The Logic of Massacres in Algeria" Archived March 4, 2016, at the Wayback Machine., Stathis N. Kalyvas, Rationality and Society, Vol. 11, No. 3, 243–85 (1999)
- ^ "The Russian operations complete their 43rd month on the Syrian territory by killing 22 citizens including about 10 children and women by its warplanes • The Syrian Observatory For Human Rights". 30 April 2019. 2019年12月22日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年12月22日閲覧。
- ^ "Twentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls". users.erols.com. 2023年10月6日閲覧。
- ^ Ray, Fulcher. "Balochistan: Pakistan's internal war History of an insurgency".
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- ^ "September 11th Fast Facts". CNN. 27 March 2015. 2015年5月14日閲覧。
- ^ Humanitarian Bulletin Ukraine Issue 11" (PDF), OHCHR, July 9, 2016. Retrieved March 4, 2018.
- ^ "Massacres at Sabra & Shatila". www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org. 2016年9月26日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。
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- ^ Rummel, R.J. "DEATH BY GOVERNMENT Chapter 3 Pre-Twentieth Century Democide".
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引数が必須です。 (説明) - ^ a b "341 students died at Northern residential schools – CBC News". CBC.
Sinclair said the total number of recorded residential school deaths in Canada — 3,201 — could be an underestimate given poor record keeping, and the real number of deaths could have been five to 10 times higher.
- ^ a b Tasker, John Paul (29 May 2015). "Residential schools findings point to 'cultural genocide', commission chair says". CBC News. 2016年5月18日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2016年7月1日閲覧。
- ^ a b Smith, Joanna (15 December 2015). "Truth and Reconciliation Commission's report details deaths of 3,201 children in residential schools". Toronto Star. 2016年8月26日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2016年11月27日閲覧。
- ^ a b Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada (2015). "Honouring the Truth, Reconciling for the Future: Summary of the Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada" (PDF). p. 1. 2018年9月21日時点のオリジナル (PDF)よりアーカイブ。2018年9月20日閲覧。
The establishment and operation of residential schools were a central element of this policy, which can best be described as 'cultural genocide'.
- ^ a b KUROMIYA Hiroaki, Stalin: Profiles In Power、Routledge、2005, p103, ネイマーク『スターリンのジェノサイド』第四章原注(2):p.xvi
- ^ a b コンクエスト『悲しみの収穫』恵雅堂出版、2007年、, p495-509
- ^ Oleh Wolowyna, Serhii Plokhy, Nataliia Levchuk, Omelian Rudnytskyi, Alla Kovbasiuk, Pavlo Shevchuk, Regional variations of 1932–34 famine losses in Ukraine,Canadian Studies in Population43, no. 3–4 (2016): 175–202.
- ^ 中井和夫他『ポーランド・ウクライナ・バルト史』
- ^ 栗生沢猛夫『図説 ロシアの歴史』2010年(2014年増補), p.131-134.
- ^ 『世界歴史体系 ロシア史3』山川出版社、1997年、p.201-206.
- ^ ティモシー・スナイダー『ブラッドランド 上』p82-93, 100-112.
- ^ ヴィクトル・コンドラーシン,2006,p495-503
- ^ Reitlinger, Gerald. The Final Solution. The Attempt to Exterminate the Jews of Europe, 1939–1945, New York: Beechhurst Press. Review by Friedman, Philip (1954). "Review of The Final Solution". Jewish Social Studies 16 (2): 186–89. JSTOR 4465231. See also a review by Hyamson, Albert M. (1953). "Review of The Final Solution". International Affairs 29 (4): 494–95. JSTOR 2606046
- ^ "How many Jews were murdered in the Holocaust?". Yad Vashem. (FAQs about the Holocaust).
- ^ "The Holocaust: Tracing Lost Family Members". JVL. Retrieved November 2013.
- ^ a b Sharp, Bruce (1 April 2005). "Counting Hell: The Death Toll of the Khmer Rouge Regime in Cambodia". 2006年7月5日閲覧。
- ^ a b Heuveline, Patrick (2001). "The Demographic Analysis of Mortality in Cambodia". In Forced Migration and Mortality, eds. Holly E. Reed and Charles B. Keely. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
- ^ a b c d e f White, Matthew. "20th Century death tolls larger than one million but fewer than 5 million people-Cambodia". necrometrics. 2018年3月8日閲覧。
- ^ "H A Z A R A G E N O C I D E ( 1 8 8 8 - 1 8 9 3 )". Wixsite.
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引数が必須です。 (説明) - ^ Bussi, Pierluigi. "IL GENOCIDIO DEGLI HAZARA". Kim International Magazine. 2019年10月31日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。
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引数が必須です。 (説明) - ^ Purcell, Victor. China. London: Ernest Benn, 1962. pg. 167
- ^ Quoted in ibid., pg. 239.
- ^ Chesneaux, Jean. Peasant Revolts in China, 1840–1949. Translated by C. A. Curwen. New York: W. W. Norton, 1973. pg. 40
- ^ Jalata, Asafa (2016). Phases of Terrorism in the Age of Globalization: From Christopher Columbus to Osama bin Laden. Palgrave Macmillan US. pp. 92–3. ISBN 978-1-137-55234-1。
- ^ D'Costa, Bina (2011). Nationbuilding, Gender and War Crimes in South Asia, Routledge. pg. 53; ISBN 9780415565660
- ^ Sikand, Yoginder (2004). Muslims in India Since 1947: Islamic Perspectives on Inter-Faith Relations, Routledge. pg. 5; ISBN 9781134378258
- ^ Butalia, Urvashi (2000). The Other Side of Silence: Voices From the Partition of India, Duke University Press.
- ^ a b Rummel, R.J. "Yugoslavian Democide: Estimates, Sources, and Calculations". View Line 237.
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引数が必須です。 (説明) - ^ a b White, Matthew. "Albigensian Crusade". necrometrics.
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引数が必須です。 (説明) - ^ Raphael Lemkin (2012). Steven Leonard Jacobs (ed.). Lemkin on Genocide. Lexington Books. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-7391-4526-5。
- ^ Tomasz Szarota & Wojciech Materski (2009), Polska 1939–1945. Straty osobowe i ofiary represji pod dwiema okupacjami, Warsaw: Institute of National Remembrance; ISBN 978-83-7629-067-6 (Excerpt reproduced in digital form).
- ^ White, Matthew. "Secondary Wars and Atrocities of the Twentieth Century – Brazil". Necrometrics.
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引数が必須です。 (説明) - ^ Smith 1997, pp. 600–01 n. 8
- ^ "Tibet: Proving Truth from Facts". Archived June 15, 2007, at the Wayback Machine., The Department of Information and International Relations: Central Tibetan Administration, 1996. pg. 53
- ^ Kuzmin, S.L. Hidden Tibet: History of Independence and Occupation. Dharamsala, LTWA, 2011.
- ^ "Alleged atrocities by the Pakistan Army (paragraph 33)". Hamoodur Rahman Commission Report. 23 October 1974. 2014年10月12日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2014年6月13日閲覧。
- ^ Rummel, R.J. "Pakistan Genocide in Bangladesh: Estimates, Sources, and Calculations". View Line 82.
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引数が必須です。 (説明) - ^ Totten, Samuel; William S. Parsons; Israel W. Charny (2004). Century of Genocide: Critical Essays and Eyewitness Accounts. Routledge. p. 345. ISBN 0-415-94430-9。
- ^ Hannum, Hurst (1989). "International Law and Cambodian Genocide: The Sounds of Silence", Human Rights Quarterly (Johns Hopkins University Press) 11 (1): 82–138. doi:10.2307/761936. JSTOR 761936.
- ^ CDI: The Center for Defense Information, The Defense Monitor, "The World At War: January 1, 1998".
- ^ Reyntjens, Filip. The Great African War: Congo and Regional Geopolitics, 1996–2006. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2009. pg. 100
- ^ "Democratic Republic of Congo. An long-standing crisis spinning out of control". . Amnesty International, September 3, 1998, pg. 9. AI Index: AFR 62/33/98.
- ^ 《晉書·卷一百七》 Jin Shu Original text 閔躬率趙人誅諸胡羯,無貴賤男女少長皆斬之,死者二十余萬,屍諸城外,悉為野犬豺狼所食。屯據四方者,所在承閔書誅之,于時高鼻多須至有濫死者半。
- ^ John Morley, Biography of Oliver Cromwell, p. 298. published 1900 and 2001; ISBN 978-1-4212-6707-4 "Cromwell is still a hate figure in Ireland today because of the brutal effectiveness of his campaigns in Ireland. Of course, his victories in Ireland made him a hero in Protestant England." "Archived copy". 2007年9月28日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2009年5月25日閲覧。 British National Archives web site. Retrieved March 2007; "Archived copy". 2004年12月11日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2006年1月17日閲覧。 From a history site dedicated to the English Civil War. "... making Cromwell's name into one of the most hated in Irish history". Retrieved March 2007. "Archived copy". 2004年12月11日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2006年1月17日閲覧。
- ^ Philip McKeiver in his 2007 work, A New History of Cromwell's Irish Campaign ISBN 978-0-9554663-0-4 and Tom Reilly, 1999, Cromwell: An Honourable Enemy; ISBN 0-86322-250-1
- ^ Coyle, Eugene (Winter 1999). "Cromwell: An Honourable Enemy, Tom Reilly [review of]". Book Reviews. History Ireland. 7 (4). 2014年10月10日閲覧。
- ^ Robins & Jones 2009, p. 50.
- ^ Dutton, Donald G. (2007). The Psychology of Genocide, Massacres, and Extreme Violence: Why "normal" People Come to Commit Atrocities. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 14. ISBN 9780275990008。
- ^ Friedman, Mark (2013). Genocide (Hot Topics). Raintree. p. 58. ISBN 9781406235081。
- ^ a b c d Routine calculations do not count as original research, provided there is consensus among editors that the result of the calculation is obvious, correct, and a meaningful reflection of the sources. Basic arithmetic, such as adding numbers, converting units, or calculating a person's age are some examples of routine calculations. See also Category:Conversion templates.
https://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.TAB14.1C.GIF row 1313 and 1314
1,000,000 and 10,000 to 2,000,000 and 100,000 Kurds were displaced and killed respectively between 1963 and 1987; 250,000 of them in 1977 and 1978. If deaths are proportional to the displacement then 2,500 to 12,500 Kurds would of died during this period depending on the scale of overall displacement and deaths used. - ^ Chestnut Greitens, Sheena (16 August 2016). Dictators and their Secret Police: Coercive Institutions and State Violence. p. 289. ISBN 9781316712566。
- ^ Jaffar Al-Faylee, Zaki (2010). Tareekh Al-Kurd Al-Faylyoon. Beirut. pp. 485, 499–501.
- ^ Al-Hakeem, Dr. Sahib (2003). Untold stories of more than 4000 women raped killed and tortured in Iraq, the country of mass graves. pp. 489–492.
- ^ "The Tragedy of the Missing Barzanis". Kurdistan Memory Programme. 2019年11月19日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年11月19日閲覧。
- ^ Jones, Dave. "The Crimes of Saddam Hussein 1983 The Missing Barzanis". Frontline World. PBS. 2006年2月6日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2006年2月6日閲覧。
- ^ a b GENOCIDE IN IRAQ Human Rights Watch, 1993
- ^ a b "The Crimes of Saddam Hussein – 1988 The Anfal Campaign". PBS Frontline. 24 January 2006. 2006年2月6日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年11月15日閲覧。
- ^ Zenko, Micah. "Remembering the Iraqi Uprising Twenty-Five Years Ago". Council on Foreign Relations. 2023年10月6日閲覧。
- ^ a b 1,000 deaths per day in April, May and June along Turkish border a - "Iraqi Deaths from the Gulf War as of April 1992," Greenpeace, Washington, D.C. See also "Aftermath of War: The Persian Gulf War Refugee Crisis," Staff Report to the Senate Judiciary Committee's Subcommittee on Immigration and Refugee Affairs, May 20, 1991. The figure of nearly 1,000 deaths per day is also given in "Kurdistan in the Time of Saddam Hussein," Staff Report to the U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, November 1991, p.14. "hundreds" (100 to 900?) died per day along Iranian border b - Kurdish Refugees Straggle Into Iran, Followed By Tragedy, Associated Press, Apr 13, 1991 1,100 to 1,900 (a + b) deaths per day from at least April 13th (b) up to between May 1st and May 31st (a ); which suggests 44 to 74 days: 1,100(44)= 48,400 1,900(74)= 140,600 Routine calculations Routine calculations do not count as original research, provided there is consensus among editors that the result of the calculation is obvious, correct, and a meaningful reflection of the sources. Basic arithmetic, such as adding numbers, converting units, or calculating a person's age are some examples of routine calculations. See also Category:Conversion templates.
- ^ "Microsoft Word – Letters9" (PDF). 2010年3月24日閲覧。
- ^ "Sudan president charged with genocide in Darfur", Associated Press. Archived July 24, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Dr. Eric Reeves, Quantifying Genocide in Darfur, April 28, 2006 Archived July 28, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ "U.N.: 100,000 more dead in Darfur than reported". CNN. 22 April 2008. 2008年4月22日閲覧。
- ^ "Q&A: Sudan's Darfur conflict". BBC News. 8 February 2010. 2010年3月24日閲覧。
- ^ "Darfur conflict". Alertnet.org. 2010年3月24日閲覧。
- ^ "The Prosecutor v. Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir". International Criminal Court. 2016年4月24日閲覧。
- ^ Pohl, J. Otto (1999). Ethnic Cleansing in the USSR, 1937–1949. Greenwood Press. pp. 97–98. ISBN 9780313309212. LCCN 98046822。
- ^ Bancheli, Tozun; Bartmann, Barry; Srebrnik, Henry (2004). De Facto States: The Quest for Sovereignty. Routledge. p. 229. ISBN 9781135771201。
- ^ Cribb, Robert (2001). "How many deaths? Problems in the statistics of massacre in Indonesia (1965-1966) and East Timor (1975-1980)". Bepress (英語).
- ^ a b Defert, Gabriel, Timor Est le Genocide Oublié, L'Hartman, 1992.
- ^ "Conflict-related deaths in Timor-Leste 1974–1999" (PDF). Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor. 2013年12月29日閲覧。
- ^ Asia Watch, Human Rights in Indonesia and East Timor, Human Rights Watch, New York, 1989, p. 253
- ^ "Yale University" (PDF). 2009年2月27日時点のオリジナル (PDF)よりアーカイブ。2008年2月18日閲覧。
- ^ The Reconstruction of Nations, 2004
- ^ W kręgu Łun w Bieszczadach, 2009, page 13
- ^ Od rzezi wołyńskiej do akcji "Wisła", 2011, pp. 447–448
- ^ Terles in Ethnic Cleansing, p. 61
Czesław Partacz, Prawda historyczna na prawda polityczna w badaniach naukowych. Przykład ludobójstwa na Kresach Południowo-Wschodniej Polski w latach 1939–1946
Lucyna Kulińska "Dzieci Kresów III", Kraków 2009, p. 467
Józef Turowski, Władysław Siemaszko: Zbrodnie nacjonalistów ukraińskich dokonane na ludności polskiej na Wołyniu 1939–1945. Główna Komisja Badania Zbrodni Hitlerowskich w Polsce – Instytut Pamięci Narodowej, Środowisko Żołnierzy 27 Wołyńskiej Dywizji Armii Krajowej w Warszawie, 1990 Hochspringen ↑ Władysław Siemaszko, Ewa Siemaszko [2000]: Ludobójstwo dokonane przez nacjonalistów ukraińskich na ludności polskiej Wołynia 1939–1945. Borowiecky, Warszawa 2000; ISBN 83-87689-34-3, S. 1056. - ^ "Uchwala Sejmu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z dnia 15 lipca 2009 r. w sprawie tragicznego losu Polakow na Kresach Wschodnich". Biuro Prasowe Kancelarii Sejmu. 2011年8月17日閲覧。
- ^ W świetle przedstawionych wyżej ustaleń nie ulega wątpliwości, że zbrodnie, których dopuszczono się wobec ludności narodowości polskiej, noszą charakter niepodlegających przedawnieniu zbrodni ludobójstwa. – Piotr Zając, Prześladowania ludności narodowości polskiej na terenie Wołynia w latach 1939–1945 – ocena karnoprawna zdarzeń w oparciu o ustalenia śledztwa OKŚZpNP w Lublinie, [in:] Zbrodnie przeszłości. Opracowania i materiały prokuratorów IPN, t. 2: Ludobójstwo, red. Radosław Ignatiew, Antoni Kura, Warszawa 2008, pp. 34–49
- ^ Timothy Snyder "A fascist hero in democratic Kiev", New York Review of Books, February 24, 2010.
- ^ Keith Darden, Resisting Occupation: Lessons from a Natural Experiment in Carpathian Ukraine, pg. 5, Yale University, October 2, 2008.
- ^ J.P. Himka, "Interventions: Challenging the Myths of Twentieth-Century Ukrainian history", University of Alberta, March 28, 2011, pg. 4
- ^ Grzegorz Motyka, "Od rzezi wołyńskiej do akcji "Wisła",. Konflikt polsko-ukraiński 1943–1947, Kraków (2011), pg. 447
- ^ Timothy Snyder, The Reconstruction of Nations. Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999, Yale University Press. 2003. pp. 170, 176
- ^ Weinberg, Robert. The Revolution of 1905 in Odessa: Blood on the Steps. 1993, pg. 164.
- ^ "Pogroms". jewishvirtuallibrary.org. 2018年3月8日閲覧。
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6,000 children died in these schools. Some evidence puts the casualties at three times that number.
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引数が必須です。 (説明) - ^ "The Canadian Genocide: Tens of Thousands of CHILDREN Killed by the CHURCH". humansarefree.com.
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- ^ Pamela Palmater (29 March 2017). "Canada 150 is a celebration of Indigenous genocide". Now.
Celebrating genocide is not what most would consider a modern Canadian value. While use of the term "genocide" to describe Canada's treatment of Indigenous peoples has created a great deal of debate, there has always been a recognition that, at minimum, Canada was guilty of "cultural genocide," even if individuals couldn't bring themselves to accept more sinister intentions. Former prime minister Paul Martin told the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) that it was time to call the residential schools policy what it was: "cultural genocide." Supreme Court of Canada Chief Justice Beverley McLachlin weighed in on Canada's dismal human rights record, saying that residential schools were attempts to commit "cultural genocide" against Indigenous peoples.
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引数が必須です。 (説明) - ^ Zubaida 2000, p. 370
- ^ "Displaced persons in Iraqi Kurdistan and Iraqi refugees in Iran" (PDF). fidh.org. International Federation for Human Rights. January 2003. 2011年9月23日閲覧。
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- ^ "Genesis of Nellie massacre and Assam agitation", Indilens news team. Retrieved November 10, 2015.
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- ^ Chapman 2010, p. 544.
- ^ Gardini, Walter (1984). "Restoring the Honour of an Indian Tribe-Rescate de una tribu". Anthropos. Bd. 79, H. 4./6.: 645–47.
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- ^ "Which groups are under threat by ISIS in Iraq?", cnn.com. Retrieved December 22, 2015.
- ^ Carlos A. Floria and César A. García Belsunce, 1971. Historia de los Argentinos I and II; ISBN 84-599-5081-6. [要ページ番号]
- ^ "As Christians Flee, Governments Pressured To Declare ISIS Guilty Of Genocide". NPR. December 24, 2015. "At least a thousand Christians have been killed. Hundreds of thousands have fled."
- ^ a b “New study gives first verifiable death toll at Cold War East German borders - The Local”. web.archive.org (2017年6月8日). 2024年8月19日閲覧。
- ^ “'More than 1,000 died' trying to flee East Germany - Telegraph”. web.archive.org (2012年4月12日). 2024年8月19日閲覧。
- ^ a b Maurice Meisner (1999). Mao's China and After: A History of the People's Republic (3rd ed.). Free Press. p. 354. ISBN 978-0-684-85635-3。
- ^ USHMM (5 December 1995). "The Chinese Case: Was It Genocide or Poor Policy?". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. 2017年8月23日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。
The Cultural Revolution was modern China's most destructive episode. It is estimated that 100 million people were persecuted and about five to ten million people, mostly intellectuals and party officials lost their lives.
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引数が必須です。 (説明) - ^ Robinson, Geoffrey B. (2018). The Killing Season: A History of the Indonesian Massacres, 1965–66. Princeton University Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-4008-8886-3。
- ^ Indonesia's killing fields. Al Jazeera, December 21, 2012. Retrieved January 24, 2016.
Gellately, Robert; Kiernan, Ben (July 2003). The Specter of Genocide: Mass Murder in Historical Perspective. Cambridge University Press. pp. 290–91. ISBN 0521527503. 2015年10月19日閲覧。
"Blumenthal80">Mark Aarons (2007). "Justice Betrayed: Post-1945 Responses to Genocide." In David A. Blumenthal and Timothy L. H. McCormack (eds). The Legacy of Nuremberg: Civilising Influence or Institutionalised Vengeance? (International Humanitarian Law). Martinus Nijhoff Publishers; ISBN 9004156917, pg. 80. - ^ Robinson, Geoffrey B. (2018). The Killing Season: A History of the Indonesian Massacres, 1965–66. Princeton University Press. pp. 206–207. ISBN 9781400888863。
- ^ Cribb, Robert (2002). "Unresolved Problems in the Indonesian Killings of 1965–1966". Asian Survey. 42 (4): 550–63. doi:10.1525/as.2002.42.4.550。
- ^ Melvin, Jess (2018). The Army and the Indonesian Genocide: Mechanics of Mass Murder. Routledge. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-138-57469-4。
- ^ Getty, J. Arch; Rittersporn, Gábor; Zemskov, Viktor (1993). "Victims of the Soviet penal system in the pre-war years: a first approach on the basis of archival evidence" (PDF). American Historical Review. 98 (4): 1022. doi:10.2307/2166597. JSTOR 2166597。
- ^ Wielka czystka by Alexander Weissberg-Cybulski, ISBN 83-07-02122-7
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The Terror—no other term will do—that began in 1950 was to last for three years and cost several million lives before it ended. It originated in two distinct political campaigns, each a ruthless effort to crush a particular class. The land reform, while nominally an effort to reapportion the land to poor and lower-middle-class peasants, was actually intended to destroy the old rural elite, replacing it with a new rural power structure dominated by those who had received parcels of land from the CCP and the new regime.4 The "suppression of counterrevolutionaries" campaign was designed to eliminate the bureaucratic bourgeoisie—those compradores, traders, and KMT functionaries who were seen by the party as economic parasites or political foes. [...] The U.S. State Department in 1976 estimated that there may have been a million killed in the land reform, 800,000 killed in the counterrevolutionary campaign.7 Maurice Meisner, who is sympathetic to the need for revolutionary terror, allowed that perhaps 2 million people were executed during the first three years of the PRC.8 Jacques Guillermaz, the distinguished French Sinologist, who served as French Military Attaché in Nanjing during the civil war and later in Beijing, estimated in his La Chine populaire, published in 1964, that a total of 1 to 3 million were executed.9 He later increased this estimate to 5 million, a figure that Fairbank has cited as the upper range of "sober" estimates.10 The highest estimate comes from Nationalist officials on Taiwan, who were not inclined to underestimate the ferocity of their victorious opponents. They alleged that 6 million urban residents and 4 million rural gentry had been killed during these years. [...] 7. Stephen Rosskamm Shalom, Deaths in China Due to Communism, Occasional Paper No. 15., Center for Asian Studies (Tempe: Arizona State University, 1984), p. 24. 8. Maurice Meisner, Mao's China: A History of the People's Republic (New York: The Free Press, 1977), p. 81. 9. Jacques Guillermaz, La Chine populaire, (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1959), p. 47. 10. Jacques Guillermaz, The Chinese Communist Party in Power, 1949—1976 (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1976), p. 24, n. 6
- ^ Эрлихман, Вадим (2004). Потери народонаселения в XX веке. Издательский дом "Русская панорама". ISBN 5931651071。
- ^ Julián Casanova, Francisco Espinosa, Conxita Mir, Francisco Moreno Gómez. "Morir, matar, sobrevivir. La violencia en la dictadura de Franco", Editorial Crítica. Barcelona, Spain. 2002. p. 8.
- ^ Michael Richards, A Time of Silence: Civil War and the Culture of Repression in Franco's Spain, 1936–1945, Cambridge University Press. 1998. pg. 11.
- ^ Antony Beevor. The Battle for Spain: The Spanish Civil War 1936–1939, Weidenfeld & Nicolson (2006), pp. 89–94.
- ^ "Genocides, Politicides, and Other Mass Murder Since 1945, With Stages in 2008". Genocide Prevention Advisory Network. 2016年8月5日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2016年7月22日閲覧。
- ^ Harff, Barbara & Gurr, Ted Robert: "Toward an Empirical Theory of Genocides and Politicides", 32 International Studies Quarterly 359 (1988).
- ^ Agence France Presse (8 Oct. 1996)
- ^ Christopher M. Andrew; Vasili Mitrokhin (2005). The World was Going Our Way: The KGB and the Battle for the Third World. Basic Books. p. 457. ISBN 978-0-465-00311-2。
- ^ Riccardo Orizio, US admits helping Mengistu escape, BBC, December 22, 1999.
- ^ Talk of the Devil: Encounters with Seven Dictators, pg 151.
- ^ Paul M. Edwards, Historical Dictionary of the Korean War, Plymouth, UK: Scarecrow Press, 2010, p. 32, entry "Bodo League Massacre"
- ^ Kim 2004, p. 535.
- ^ a b Hodapp, Christopher (2013). Freemasonry for Dummies, 2. Edition. Wiley Publishing Inc. ISBN 978-1118412084。
- ^ Ryan, James (2012). Lenin's Terror: The Ideological Origins of Early Soviet State Violence. London: Routledge. pg. 114; ISBN 978-1138815681
- ^ Lajos Szaszdi (2008). Russian Civil-Military Relations and the Origins of the Second Chechen War. University Press of America. p. 152. ISBN 978-0-7618-4178-4。
- ^ "Justice For Iraq". Mafhoum.com. 2013年8月14日閲覧。
- ^ "Background on Chile". The Center for Justice & Accountability. 2013年7月9日閲覧。
- ^ a b c McSherry, J. Patrice (2011). "Chapter 5: "Industrial repression" and Operation Condor in Latin America". In Esparza, Marcia; Henry R. Huttenbach; Daniel Feierstein (eds.). State Violence and Genocide in Latin America: The Cold War Years (Critical Terrorism Studies). Routledge. p. 107. ISBN 978-0415664578。
- ^ Blakeley, Ruth (2009). State Terrorism and Neoliberalism: The North in the South. Routledge. p. 22 & 23. ISBN 978-0415686174。
- ^ Beevor, Antony. The Battle for Spain; The Spanish Civil War 1936–1939. Penguin Books. 2006. London. p. 87
- ^ de la Cueva, Julio, "Religious Persecution", Journal of Contemporary History, 3, 198, pp. 355–69. JSTOR 261121
- ^ Julian Casanova, Unearthing Franco's Legacy, pp. 105–06, University of Notre Dame Press, 2010; ISBN 0-268-03268-8
- ^ Beevor, Antony (2006), The Battle For Spain; The Spanish Civil War 1936–1939, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, pg. 81.
- ^ Moise, pp. 205–22; "Newly released documents on the land reform", Vietnam Studies Group. "Archived copy". 2011年4月20日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2016年6月30日閲覧。
- ^ Lam Thanh Liem (2005), "Ho Chi Minh's Land Reform: Mistake or Crime". Retrieved October 4, 2015.
- ^ Dr. Linton, Marisa. "The Terror in the French Revolution" (PDF). Kingston University, UK. 2019年3月11日閲覧。
- ^ "The Reign of Terror". Lumen Learning. 2019年3月11日閲覧。
- ^ University of California, San Diego (2001). "El Salvador elections and events 1902–1932". 2008年5月21日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2008年8月12日閲覧。
- ^ Phil Gunson (2 April 2009). "Obituary: Raúl Alfonsín – World news – The Guardian". Guardian. London. 2013年8月23日閲覧。
- ^ Paavolainen 1966, pp. 183–208, Paavolainen 1967, Keränen et al. 1992, pp. 121, 138, Eerola & Eerola 1998, pp. 59, 91, Westerlund 2004a, p. 15, Tikka 2006, pp. 19–30, Jyränki 2014, pp. 150–88, Tikka 2014, pp. 90–118, Kekkonen 2016, pp. 106–66, 287–356
- ^ "Archived copy". 2014年8月7日閲覧。
- ^ "Iran Focus". 2016年5月12日閲覧。
- ^ "News". The Telegraph. 2016年5月12日閲覧。
- ^ "At least 10,000 people died in Tiananmen Square massacre, secret British cable alleges". independent.co.uk. 23 December 2017.
- ^ English translation of the Rettig Report
- ^ "Chile to sue over false reports of Pinochet-era missing". Latin American Studies. 30 December 2008. 2010年3月10日閲覧。
- ^ see Notes
- ^ a b Ronald Segal, in Islam's Black Slaves, estimates the total number of African slaves shipped to the Muslim world at 11.5M-14M. This breaks down as follows: From 650-1600 CE Citing Ralph Austen: Trans-Saharan: 4,820,000 Red Sea: 1.6M East Africa: 0.8M TOTAL: 7.22M shipped Citing Paul Lovejoy: 3.5-10.0M shipped 17th Century Sahara: 0.7M Red Sea: 0.1M East Africa: 0.1M TOTAL: 900,000 shipped 18th C Sahara: 0.7M Red Sea: 0.2M East Africa: 0.4M TOTAL: 1,300,000 shipped 19th C Sahara: 1.2M Red Sea: 0.45M East Africa: 0.442M TOTAL: 2,092,000 shipped TOTAL: 11,512,000 shipped Segal also mentions estimates by Raymond Mauvy: 7th C: 0.1M 8th C: 0.2M 9th C: 0.4M 10th-13th Cs: 2.0M 14th C: 1.0M 15th-19th Cs: 10.0M First half 20th C.: 300,000 TOTAL: 14M shipped What was the mortality rate among these slaves? Here are a few estimates in Segal: Wylde: Each eunuch in Cairo represented 200 dead Sudanese. Hourst, 19th C: each sale represented a loss of ten in the original population, including raids. Livingstone: 1 living = 10 dead. British Govt Rpt: For every 10 slaves reaching 19C Cairo, 50 died on the way. Nachtigal: on one large [typical?] Saharan caravan, 3 or 4 died for every survivor. UK Consul in Zanzibar: 1:1 ratio Mahadi: 20% d. in Saharan trade Lovejoy, citing Martin: 9% overall in 19th C. East Africa. (Segal: safe estimate) [MEDIAN of these estimates: 3 to 5 deaths for every 1 live import]
- ^ "De re Militari: muertos en Guerras, Dictaduras y Genocidios". remilitari.com. 2023年10月6日閲覧。
- ^ "De re Militari: muertos en Guerras, Dictaduras y Genocidios". remilitari.com. 2023年10月6日閲覧。
- ^ "De re Militari: muertos en Guerras, Dictaduras y Genocidios". remilitari.com. 2023年10月6日閲覧。
- ^ "De re Militari: muertos en Guerras, Dictaduras y Genocidios". remilitari.com. 2023年10月6日閲覧。
- ^ Aikman, David. "The Laogai Archipelago", The Weekly Standard, September 29, 1997.
- ^ "Reeducation Through Labor in China". Human Rights Watch. June 1998. 2008年9月15日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2008年10月12日閲覧。
- ^ Greenberg, Jon. "Jon Stewart: Slave trade caused 5 million deaths". Pundit Fact.
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引数が必須です。 (説明) - ^ Stannard, David (1992). American Holocaust. ISBN 978-0-19-508557-0。
- ^ Davis, Robert. Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800.
- ^ The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 3, AD 1420–AD 1804.
- ^ a b Ascherson 1999, p. 9.
- ^ a b Hochschild 1999, p. 315.
- ^ a b Hochschild, Adam (1999), pp. 226–32, King Leopold's Ghost, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt; ISBN 0-547-52573-7
- ^ a b Hochschild, pp. 226–32.
- ^ Pool, The Stalinist Penal System, pg. 131
- ^ Getty, J. Arch; Rittersporn, Gábor; Zemskov, Viktor (1993). "Victims of the Soviet penal system in the pre-war years: a first approach on the basis of archival evidence" (PDF). American Historical Review. 98 (4): 1024. doi:10.2307/2166597. JSTOR 2166597。
- ^ Alexopoulos, Golfo (2017). Illness and Inhumanity in Stalin's Gulag, Yale University Press.
- ^ Healey, Dan (1 June 2018). "GOLFO ALEXOPOULOS. Illness and Inhumanity in Stalin's Gulag". The American Historical Review. 123 (3): 1049–1051. doi:10.1093/ahr/123.3.1049.
New studies using declassified Gulag archives have provisionally established a consensus on mortality and "inhumanity." The tentative consensus says that once secret records of the Gulag administration in Moscow show a lower death toll than expected from memoir sources, generally between 1.5 and 1.7 million (out of 18 million who passed through) for the years from 1930 to 1953.
- ^ Wheatcroft, Stephen G. (1999). "Victims of Stalinism and the Soviet Secret Police: The Comparability and Reliability of the Archival Data. Not the Last Word" (PDF). Europe-Asia Studies. 51 (2): 320. doi:10.1080/09668139999056。
- ^ Steven Rosefielde. Red Holocaust. Routledge, 2009. ISBN 0-415-77757-7 pg. 67 "...more complete archival data increases camp deaths by 19.4 percent to 1,258,537"; pg 77: "The best archivally based estimate of Gulag excess deaths at present is 1.6 million from 1929 to 1953."
- ^ a b c Black Book of Communism, pg. 564.
- ^ a b c Haas, Benjamin (19 September 2018). "'Ashamed': South Koreans chilled by Kim Jong-un's cuddles". the Guardian. 2018年9月20日閲覧。
North Korea runs massive prison camps that hold between 80,000 and 120,000 political prisoners, according to a United Nations inquiry that compiled evidence of a raft of crimes against humanity. The UN commission cited 'extermination, murder, enslavement, torture, imprisonment, rape, forced abortions and other sexual violence, persecution on political, religious, racial and gender grounds, the forcible transfer of populations, the enforced disappearance of persons and the inhumane act of knowingly causing prolonged starvation'.
- ^ Rummel, R.J. (1999). Statistics of Democide: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1990. Lit Verlag. ISBN 3-8258-4010-7。 Available online: "Statistics of Democide: Chapter 3 – Statistics Of Japanese Democide Estimates, Calculations, And Sources". Freedom, Democracy, Peace; Power, Democide, and War. 2006年3月1日閲覧。
- ^ "Twentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls". necrometrics.com. 2018年8月2日閲覧。
- ^ White, Matthew. "Secondary Wars and Atrocities of the Twentieth Century". Necrometrics. 2018年8月2日閲覧。
- ^ "De re Militari: muertos en Guerras, Dictaduras y Genocidios". remilitari.com. 2023年10月6日閲覧。
- ^ "Twentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls". necrometrics.com. 2018年8月2日閲覧。
- ^ a b c MacPherson, Neil, "Death Railway Movements", mansell.com. Retrieved January 6, 2015.
- ^ "L'Aventure Humaine: Le canal de Suez, Article de l'historien Uwe Oster". 2011年8月19日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2011年8月19日閲覧。
- ^ The Suez Crisis – Key maps, bbc.co.uk. Retrieved August 2, 2018.
- ^ a b c d e Katz, Brigit. "Remains of 19th-Century Chinese Laborers Found at a Pyramid in Peru". Smithsonian.com. 2019年11月11日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年11月11日閲覧。
- ^ a b c d e Hwang, Justina. "Chinese in Peru in the 19th century". Brown University. 2019年11月11日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年11月11日閲覧。
- ^ "Peru discovers in pre-Incan site tomb of 16 Chinese migrants". Phys.org. 24 August 2017.
The Chinese were discriminated against even in death, having to be buried in the pre-Incan sites after being barred from cemeteries reserved for Roman Catholics.
- ^ "Japan News and Discussion". Japan Today. 2008年2月7日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2016年2月15日閲覧。
- ^ "Bataan Rescue: People & Events". American Experience. 2016年2月15日閲覧。
- ^ Stephenson, Wesley. "Have 1,200 World Cup workers really died in Qatar?". BBC News. 2018年3月4日閲覧。
- ^ Patnaik, Utsa. "On Famine and Measuring 'Famine Deaths'". Internet Archive. 2019年3月30日閲覧。
- ^ Wemheuer, Felix (July 2011). "Sites of horror: Mao's Great Famine [with response]". The China Journal (66): 155–64. JSTOR 41262812。 on p.163 Frank Dikötter, in his response, quotes Yu Xiguang's figure of 55 million
- ^ Becker, Jasper (1998). Hungry Ghosts: Mao's Secret Famine, Holt Paperbacks, pg. xi.
- ^ Dikötter, Frank. Mao's Great Famine: The History of China's Most Devastating Catastrophe, 1958–62, Walker & Company, 2010. pg. 298.
- ^ a b c "The five worst atrocities carried out by the British Empire will make you wonder why we're apparently proud of it". The Independent. 19 January 2016. 2017年9月23日閲覧。
- ^ a b Seavoy, Ronald (1986). Famine in Peasant Societies. New York: Greenwood Press. ISBN 9780313251306。
- ^ "Notes from India". The Lancet. 157 (4055): 1430. 1901. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(01)88925-X。
- ^ a b Amartya Sen (1981). Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation. Oxford University Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-19-828463-5。
- ^ a b Fredrik Albritton Jonsson (2013). Enlightenment's Frontier: The Scottish Highlands and the Origins of Environmentalism. Yale University Press. pp. 167–70. ISBN 978-0-300-16374-2。
- ^ Digby, William (1901). 'Prosperous' British India. London: T. Fisher Unwin. p. 128. OCLC 6671095。
- ^ "Nineteenth Century Death Tolls". necrometrics.com. 2016年11月20日閲覧。
- ^ a b "How the U.S. saved a starving Soviet Russia: PBS film highlights Stanford scholar's research on the 1921–23 famine", Stanford University. April 4, 2011.
- ^ Hiroaki Kuromiya『Stalin (PLOFILES IN POWER)』Routledge book、2005年、103頁。
- ^ 『世界歴史体系 ロシア史3』山川出版社、1997年、p217-227頁。
- ^ 中井和夫他. ポーランド・ウクライナ・バルト史. pp. 318-321.
- ^ a b 『悲しみの収穫』恵雅堂、2007年、p495-509頁。
- ^ ネイマーク『スターリンのジェノサイド』、82-86頁。
- ^ Katouzian 2013, p. 1934: "Russian Revolution of 1917 brought much relief to Iran after a century of imperial interference and intimidation. But it was followed by severe famine and the Spanish flu pandemic which, combined, took a high toll of around two million, mostly of the Iranian poor."
- ^ Rubin 2015, p. 508: "Despite Iran's official neutrality, this pattern of interference continued during World War I as Ottoman-, Russian-, British-, and German-supported local forces fought across Iran, wreaking enormous havoc on the country. With farmland, crops, livestock, and infrastructure destroyed, as many as 2 million Iranians died of famine at the war's end. Although the Russian Revolution of 1917 led to the recall of Russian troops, and thus gave hope to Iranians that the foreign yoke might be relenting, the British quickly moved to fill the vacuum in the north, and by 1918, had turned the country into an unofficial protectorate."
- ^ Winegard 2016, p. 85: "Between 1917 and 1919, it is estimated that nearly half (nine to eleven million people) of the Persian population died of starvation or disease brought on by malnutrition."
- ^ Majd 2003, p. 72: "According to the American Charge d'Affaires, Wallace Smith Murray, this famine had claimed one-third of Iran's population. A famine that even according to British sources as General Dunsterville, Major Donohoe, and General Sykes had claimed vast numbers of Iranians".
- ^ Majd 2003, p. 40. In the matter of tough custom regulations, Majd mentions incidents of unsuccessful importation of foodstuff recorded by the American embassy. He also refers to a letter by an American official saying "for the last two years practically all the importations have ceased"
- ^ Rubin 2015, p. 508: "Despite Iran's official neutrality, this pattern of interference continued during World War I as Ottoman-, Russian-, British-, and German-supported local forces fought across Iran, wreaking enormous havoc on the country. With farmland, crops, livestock, and infrastructure destroyed, as many as 2 million Iranians died of famine at the war's end. Although the Russian Revolution of 1917 led to the recall of Russian troops, and thus gave hope to Iranians that the foreign yoke might be relenting, the British quickly moved to fill the vacuum in the north, and by 1918, had turned the country into an unofficial protectorate."
- ^ Patnaik, Utsa. "The Republic of Hunger" (PDF). 2019年3月30日閲覧。
- ^ a b “英国は1943年の飢饉でベンガルを飢えさせる”. 英国は1943年の飢饉でベンガルを飢えさせる (2019年11月5日). 2024年8月3日閲覧。
- ^ Nicholas Tarling (ed.) The Cambridge History of SouthEast Asia Vol.II Part 1 pp. 139–40
- ^ a b c Madhusree Mukerjee, Churchill's Secret War: The British Empire and the Ravaging of India During World War II.
- ^ a b c Book review: Churchill's secret war in India, southasiarev.wordpress.com, April 12, 2011.
- ^ Stevenson, "Capitol Gains" (2014), p. 314.
- ^ "Biafra/Nigeria". eNotes.com. 2009年8月30日閲覧。
- ^ "Nigerian Civil War". Polynational War Memorial. 2014年1月4日閲覧。
- ^ a b Van der Eng, Pierre (2008) "Food Supply in Java during War and Decolonisation, 1940–1950", MPRA Paper No. 8852, pp. 35–38. /
- ^ a b c Spoorenberg, Thomas; Schwekendiek, Daniel (2012). "Demographic Changes in North Korea: 1993–2008". Population and Development Review. 38 (1): 133–158. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2012.00475.x。
- ^ a b Becker, Jasper (2005-05-01) (英語). Rogue Regime: Kim Jong Il and the Looming Threat of North Korea. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-803810-8
- ^ Daniel Goodkind; Loraine West; Peter Johnson (28 March 2011). "A Reassessment of Mortality in North Korea, 1993–2008". U.S. Census Bureau, Population Division. 2014年11月8日閲覧。
- ^ Foster, R.F. Modern Ireland 1600–1972, Penguin Press, 1988. pg. 324. Foster's footnote reads: "Based on hitherto unpublished work by C. Ó Gráda and Phelim Hughes, 'Fertility trends, excess mortality and the Great Irish Famine'...Also see C.Ó Gráda and Joel Mokyr, 'New developments in Irish Population History 1700–1850', Economic History Review, vol. xxxvii, no. 4 (November 1984), pp. 473–88."
- ^ Joseph Lee, The Modernisation of Irish Society pg. 1. Lee says 'at least 800,000'.
- ^ Vaughan, W.E. and Fitzpatrick, A.J.(eds). Irish Historical Statistics, Population, 1821/1971. Royal Irish Academy, 1978.
- ^ Cecil Woodham-Smith (1991). The great hunger: Ireland 1845–1849. Penguin Books. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-14-014515-1。
- ^ Christine Kinealy (2006). This Great Calamity: The Irish Famine, 1845–52. ISBN 978-0-7171-4011-4。
- ^ Charles Hirschman et al. "Vietnamese Casualties During the American War: A New Estimate" Archived June 20, 2010, at the Wayback Machine.. Population and Development Review (December 1995).
- ^ a b Koh, David (21 August 2008). "Vietnam needs to remember famine of 1945". The Straits Times. Singapore. 2010年1月25日閲覧。
- ^ Bruce Sharp (2008), Counting Hell 2.Ben Kiernan, paragraph 3. Mekong.
- ^ Marek Sliwiński (1995), Le Génocide Khmer Rouge: Une Analyse Démographique, L'Harmattan, pg. 82.
- ^ a b de Waal, Alex (2002) [1997]. Famine Crimes: Politics & the Disaster Relief Industry in Africa. Oxford: James Currey. ISBN 0-85255-810-4。
- ^ "Flashback 1984: Portrait of a famine", BBC News, April 6, 2000.
- ^ Sheina, Robert L., Latin America's Wars: The Age of the Caudillo, 1791–1899 (2003)
- ^ COWP: Correlates of War Project, University of Michigan.
- ^ Harris 2012, p.174
- ^ Ghazal, Rym (14 April 2015). "Lebanon's dark days of hunger: The Great Famine of 1915–18". The National. 2016年1月24日閲覧。
- ^ Ó Gráda, Cormac (2009). Famine: a short history. Princeton University Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-691-12237-3。
- ^ "Despite aid effort, Sudan famine squeezing life from dozens daily", CNN. Retrieveded May 25, 2006.
- ^ a b c "Yemen crisis: Half of population facing 'pre-famine conditions'". BBC. 24 October 2018. 2018年10月28日閲覧。
- ^ Kristof, Nicholas (26 September 2018). "Be Outraged by America's Role in Yemen's Misery". The New York Times. 2018年10月28日閲覧。
- ^ "Yemen could be 'worst famine in 100 years'". BBC. 15 October 2018. 2018年10月28日閲覧。
- ^ a b "Worst Natural Disasters In History". Nbc10.com. 2008年4月21日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2010年8月11日閲覧。
- ^ 朱蕾 (2015-10-27). "資料解密:黃河花園口決堤 阻敵南下". World Journal. Whitestone, NY. Archived from the original on 2018-08-18 – via United Daily News.
- ^ 李怡芸 (2015-09-30). "重探抗戰史 黃河決堤有效禦敵". 旺報. Taipei: China Times Group.
- ^ 汤其成; 李秀云; Institute of Geographic Sciences, China Academy of Sciences (1995). "水圈中的自然灾害". In 王劲峰 (ed.). 中国自然灾害区划——灾害区划、影响评价、减灾对策. Beijing: 中国科学技术出版社. p. 41.
- ^ a b The Associated Press of 1979
- ^ Dai Qing (1998). The River Dragon Has Come!: The Three Gorges Dam and the Fate of China's Yangtze River and Its People. M.E. Sharpe. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-7656-0206-0。
- ^ 230,000 is the highest of a range of unofficial estimates, including also deaths of ensuing epidemics and famine, in Yi 1998
- ^ Cocker, Mark (1998). Rivers of Blood, Rivers of Gold.
- ^ Prescott, William (1843). History of the Conquest of Mexico.
- ^ Ruben Mendoza (2007) pp. 407–08.
- ^ Harner (1977) p. 122
- ^ National Geographic, July 2003, cited by White
- ^ Hicks, Madelyn Hsiao-Rei; Dardagan, Hamit; Bagnall, Peter M; Spagat, Michael; Sloboda, John A (3 September 2011). "Casualties in civilians and coalition soldiers from suicide bombings in Iraq, 2003–10: a descriptive study". The Lancet. 378 (9794): 906–14. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(11)61023-4. PMID 21890055。
- ^ Sakuntala Narasimhan, Sati: widow burning in India, quoted by Matthew White, "Selected Death Tolls for Wars, Massacres and Atrocities Before the 20th Century", pg. 2 (July 2005), Historical Atlas of the 20th Century (self-published, 1998–2005).
- ^ "Emad Baghi : English" (no). emadbaghi.com. 2018年8月2日閲覧。
- ^ Karatnycky, Adrian; Cavanaugh, Kathleen; Finn, James; Graybow, Charles; Payne, Douglas W.; Ryan, Joseph E.; Sussman, Leonard R.; Zarycky, George; Finn, James (1995). Freedom in the World: The Annual Survey of Political Rights & Civil Liberties, 1994–1995 (PDF). New York: Freedom House. p. 521. 2018年10月5日時点のオリジナル (PDF)よりアーカイブ。2018年10月5日閲覧。
During the first four months of 1994, the Human Rights Committee of South Africa reported that politically motivated killings occurred at a rate of nearly fourteen deaths per day.
- ^ "An African Lysistrata in Togo – African Futures". 23 September 2012. 2012年9月23日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2018年12月25日閲覧。
- ^ "Death Toll in Kenya Exceeds 1,000, but Talks Reach Crucial Phase – The New York Times". 5 October 2018. 2018年10月5日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2018年10月5日閲覧。
- ^ "500 killed in Togo electoral violence – UN". Independent Online. AFP. 26 September 2005. 2017年12月29日閲覧。
- ^ August 29, 2005. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). "Conclusions.""La mission d'établissement des faits chargée de faire la lumière sur les violences et les allégations de violations des droits de l'homme survenues au Togo avant, pendant et après l'élection présidentielle du 24 avril 2005" Archived December 17, 2005, at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ "Death Toll in Nicaraguan Protests Hits 317, OAS Says".
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引数が必須です。 (説明) - ^ "Sudan protest death toll hits 90: doctors committee". News24 (英語). 6 May 2019. 2019年8月12日閲覧。
- ^ Walsh, Declan (4 July 2019). "Sudan Power-Sharing Deal Reached by Military and Civilian Leaders". The New York Times (アメリカ英語). ISSN 0362-4331. 2019年8月12日閲覧。
- ^ "Sudan protests: Death toll reaches 11 after anti-military rallies". www.aljazeera.com. 2019年8月12日閲覧。
- ^ Harding, Luke (29 September 2006). "How one of the biggest rows of modern times helped Danish exports to prosper". the Guardian.
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: Cite webテンプレートでは|access-date=
引数が必須です。 (説明) - ^ Wellers, Georges. "Essai de determination du nombre de morts au camp d'Auschwitz (attempt to determine the number of dead at the Auschwitz camp)", Le Monde Juif, Oct–Dec 1983, pp. 127–59.
- ^ Brian Harmon, John Drobnicki, Historical sources and the Auschwitz death toll estimates Archived March 9, 2012, at the Wayback Machine., vex.net. Retrieved August 2, 2018.
- ^ "Operation Reinhard: Treblinka Deportations". Nizkor.org. 2013年9月23日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2013年8月23日閲覧。
- ^ Encyclopedia Americana
- ^ Peter Witte and Stephen Tyas, A New Document on the Deportation and Murder of Jews during "Einsatz Reinhardt" 1942, Holocaust and Genocide Studies, vol 15, No. 3, Winter 2001; ISBN 0-19-922506-0
- ^ Raul Hilberg (2003). The Destruction of the European Jews: Third Edition. ISBN 978-0-300-09557-9。
- ^ Yitzhak Arad, Bełżec, Sobibor, Treblinka. The Operation Reinhard Death Camps, Indiana University Press, Bloomington and Indianapolis, 1987; NCR 0-253-34293-7
- ^ "Library". jewishvirtuallibrary.org. 2013年8月23日閲覧。
- ^ "Croatian holocaust still stirs controversy". BBC News. 29 November 2001. 2010年9月29日閲覧。
- ^ "Balkan 'Auschwitz' haunts Croatia". BBC News. 25 April 2005. 2010年9月29日閲覧。
No one really knows how many died here. Serbs talk of 700,000. Most estimates put the figure nearer 100,000.
- ^ Ludwik Kowalski: Alaska notes on Stalinism. Retrieved January 18, 2007. Case Study: Stalin's Purges from Genderside Watch. Retrieved January 19, 2007. George Bien, Gulag Survivor in the Boston Globe, June 22, 2005, Kolyma.
- ^ Jelka Smreka. "STARA GRADIŠKA Ustaški koncentracijski logor". Spomen područja Jasenovac. 2011年7月17日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2010年8月25日閲覧。
- ^ Davor Kovačić (2004). "Iskapanja na prostoru koncentracijskog logora Stara Gradiška i procjena broj žrtava". 2010年8月25日閲覧。
- ^ A History of Democratic Kampuchea (1975–1979). Documentation Center of Cambodia. p. 74. ISBN 99950-60-04-3。
- ^ The Andersonville Prison Trial: The Trial of Captain Henry Wirz, by General N.P. Chipman, 1911.
- ^ "On the killing of Roma in World War II". Mrc.org.rs. 13 March 2013. 2011年10月6日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2013年8月23日閲覧。
- ^ Horigan, Michael (2002). Death Camp of the North: The Elmira Civil War Prison Camp. Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books. ISBN 0-8117-1432-2。[要ページ番号]
- ^ Erichsen 2005, p. 133.
- ^ a b c “Communist Body Count” (英語). Scott Manning (2006年12月4日). 2024年8月19日閲覧。
- ^ Patnaik, Utsa. "On Famine and Measuring 'Famine Deaths'". Internet Archive. 2019年4月27日閲覧。
- ^ Gruson, Sidney. "Mao Text Shows Reds 'Liquidated' 800,000 Since '49". New York Times.
- ^ a b c d e f “戦争による国別犠牲者数 - 人間自然科学研究所”. www.hns.gr.jp. 2024年8月7日閲覧。
- ^ a b "Polish Victims". encyclopedia.ushmm.org (英語). 2019年7月29日閲覧。
- ^ a b Niewyk, Donald L. (2000). The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust. Columbia University Press. p. 422. ISBN 0-231-11200-9.
- ^ a b c Ó Gráda, Cormac (2019). "The famines of WWII". Centre for Economic Policy Research. Retrieved 2022-01-03.
One famine cost 100,000 lives in Tokyo in the second half of 1945; another was the Soviet famine of 1946–1947. The latter was proportionately most severe in Moldova, where 100,000 or 5% of the population perished, but most costly in numbers of lives in Ukraine (300,000) and elsewhere in the Soviet Union (500,000) (Ellman 2000: 611–617, Vallin et al. 2012: 70). Elsewhere, despite Truman's warning, malnutrition was widespread but famine was averted (Aldous 2010, Collingham 2011: 467–474).
- ^ a b ゲルハルト・ライヒンク『Die deutschen Vertriebenen in Zahlen』1986年。ISBN 3-88557-046-7。
- ^ a b Tomasz Szarota; Wojciech Materski, eds. (2009). Polska 1939–1945. Straty osobowe i ofiary represji pod dwiema okupacjami [Poland 1939–1945. Human Losses and Victims of Repression under two Occupations]. Warsaw: Institute of National Remembrance (IPN). Archived from the original on March 23, 2012. – Janusz Kurtyka; Zbigniew Gluza. Preface.: "ze pod okupacja sowiecka zginelo w latach 1939–1941, a nastepnie 1944–1945 co najmniej 150 tys [...] Laczne straty smiertelne ludnosci polskiej pod okupacja niemiecka oblicza sie obecnie na ok. 2 770 000. [...] Do tych strat nalezy doliczyc ponad 100 tys. Polaków pomordowanych w latach 1942–1945 przez nacjonalistów ukrainskich (w tym na samym Wolyniu ok. 60 tys. osób [...] Liczba Zydów i Polaków zydowskiego pochodzenia, obywateli II Rzeczypospolitej, zamordowanych przez Niemców siega 2,7– 2,9 mln osób." Translation: "It must be assumed losses of at least 150.000 people during the Soviet occupation from 1939 to 1941 and again from 1944 to 1945 [...] The total fatalities of the Polish population under the German occupation are now estimated at 2,770,000. [...] To these losses should be added more than 100,000 Poles murdered in the years 1942–1945 by Ukrainian nationalists (including about 60,000 in Volhynia [...] The number of Jews and Poles of Jewish ethnicity, citizens of the Second Polish Republic, murdered by the Germans amounts to 2.7–2.9 million people." – Waldemar Grabowski. German and Soviet occupation. Fundamental issues.: "Straty ludnosci panstwa polskiego narodowosci ukrainskiej sa trudne do wyliczenia," Translation: "The losses of ethnic Poles of Ukrainian nationality are difficult to calculate." Note: Polish losses amount to 11.3% of the 24.4 million ethnic Poles in prewar Poland and about 90 percent of the 3.3 million Jews of prewar times. The IPN figures do not include losses among Polish citizens of Ukrainian and Belarusian ethnicity. https://web.archive.org/web/20120323161233/http://niniwa2.cba.pl/polska_1939_1945.htm
- ^ a b "Genocide of European Roma (Gypsies), 1939–1945". encyclopedia.ushmm.org (英語). 2019年7月29日閲覧。
- ^ Reitlinger, Gerald (1953). The Final Solution. The Attempt to Exterminate the Jews of Europe, 1939–1945. New York City: Beechhurst Press.
- ^ Early efforts by scholars to determine the number of Jews murdered by the Nazis were limited by a lack of access to pertinent records. The genocide seldom entered Western discourse, both due to ignorance and to the Cold-War politics which made West Germany a new ally of the United States.The first significant work on the subject published in English was Gerald Reitlinger's Final Solution (1953), which, relying almost exclusively on German documentation, estimated 4.9 million dead. This figure is now considered extremely conservative. Raul Hilberg's 1961 The Destruction of the European Jews became a classic in the field of Holocaust literature and made the genocide of the Jews known to the wider public, Hilberg estimated its victims to be 5.1 million lives, or 4.9 – 5.4 million broadly construed. The trial of Adolph Eichmann further raised awareness of the genocide, Eichmann also provided documentation and testimony which revised the number of the dead.The first work to arrive at a figure comparable to modern estimates was Lucy Dawidowicz's The War Against the Jews, published in 1975, the book provided detailed listings by country of the number of Jews killed in the Holocaust which are still used as a reference in modern Holocaust studies. Dawidowicz researched birth and death records in many cities of prewar Europe to come up with a death toll of 5,933,900 Jews. After the opening of Soviet records, scholarship arrived at a death toll of about 6 million Jews. Gutman and Rozett's Encyclopedia of the Holocaust was published in 1990 and estimated slightly over 5.9 million Jews were murdered.Wolfgang Benz's The Holocaust: A German Historian Examines the Genocide, published 1995, gave a toll of 6.2 million.
- ^ Davies, Norman (2012). God's Playground [Boze igrzysko]. Otwarte (publishing). p. 956. ISBN 8324015566. Polish edition, second volume. "To, co robili Sowieci, bylo szczególnie mylace. Same liczby bylSacramentsie wiarygodne, ale pozbawione komentarza, sprytnie ukrywaly fakt, ze ofiary w przewazajacej liczbie nie byly Rosjanami, ze owe miliony obejmowaly ofiary nie tylko Hitlera, ale i Stalina, oraz ze wsród ludnosci cywilnej najwieksze grupy stanowili Ukraincy, Polacy, Bialorusini i Zydzi. Translation: The Soviet methods were particularly misleading. The numbers were correct, but the victims were overwhelmingly not Russian, and came from either one of the two regimes."
- ^ Journal of the Japan Institute of Energy 71 (10): 1032–1033. (1992). doi:10.3775/jie.71.1032. ISSN 0916-8753. http://dx.doi.org/10.3775/jie.71.1032.
- ^ Zemskov, Viktor N. (2012). "О масштабах людских потерь CCCР в Великой Отечественной Войне" [The extent of human losses USSR in the Great Patriotic War]. Military Historical Archive (Военно-исторический архив) (in Russian). 9: 59–71 – via Demoskop Weehly vol. 559–560 (2013)
Excludes:- Excludes the 2,500,000 million Jewish civilians killed in Soviet Territories-(see: Gilbert, Martin. Atlas of the Holocaust. 1988. ISBN 978-0-688-12364-2)
- 30,000 to 35,000 Roma killed in Porajmos-(see: Niewyk, Donald L. (2000). The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust. Columbia University Press. p. 422. ISBN 0-231-11200-9. "European Romani (Gypsy) Population". The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum: Holocaust Encyclopedia. Retrieved January 8, 2016..
- ^
Includes:
- Deaths caused by the result of direct, intentional actions of violence 7,420,379-(see: ????????? 1995, pp. 124–131 The Russian Academy of Science article by M.V. Philimoshin based this figure on sources published in the Soviet era.)
- Deaths of forced laborers in Germany 2,164,313-(see: Евдокимов 1995, pp. 124–131.)
- Deaths due to famine and disease in the occupied regions 4,100,000-(see: Евдокимов 1995, pp. 124–131 The Russian Academy of Science article by M.V. Philimoshin estimated 6% of the population in the occupied regions died due to war related famine and disease.)
- Excludes the 2,500,000 million Jewish civilians killed in Soviet Territories-(see: Gilbert, Martin. Atlas of the Holocaust. 1988. ISBN 978-0-688-12364-2)
- 30,000 to 35,000 Roma killed in Porajmos-(see: Niewyk, Donald L. (2000). The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust. Columbia University Press. p. 422. ISBN 0-231-11200-9. "European Romani (Gypsy) Population". The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum: Holocaust Encyclopedia. Retrieved January 8, 2016.
- ^ Richard Overy, Russia's War (1997): "an estimated 500,000 Soviet citizens died from German bomb attacks."
- ^ "Imperial War Museum - Invasion of the Soviet Union display". www.berkeleyinternet.com. 2019年7月29日閲覧。
- ^ Journal of the Japan Institute of Energy 71 (10): 1032–1033. (1992). doi:10.3775/jie.71.1032. ISSN 0916-8753. http://dx.doi.org/10.3775/jie.71.1032.
- ^ "Croatia" (PDF). Shoah Resource Center, The International School for Holocaust Studies. Yad Vashem. Glišic, Venceslav (January 12, 2006). "Žrtve licitiranja – Sahrana jednog mita, Bogoljub Kocovic". NIN (in Serbian). Archived from the original on August 1, 2013. http://www.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%205930.pdf https://web.archive.org/web/20130801090050/http://www.knjigainfo.com/index.php?gde=%40http%3A%2F%2Fwww.knjigainfo.com%2Fpls%2Fsasa%2Fbip.text%3Ftid%3D38347%40
- ^ Voglis, Polymeris (2006). "Surviving Hunger: Life in the Cities and the Countryside during the Occupation". In Gildea, Robert; Wievorka, Olivier; Warring, Anette. Surviving Hitler and Mussolini: Daily Life in Occupied Europe. Oxford: Berg. pp. 16–41. ISBN 978-1-84520-181-4.
- ^ Baranowski, Shelley (2010). Nazi empire : German colonialism and imperialism from Bismarck to Hitler. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 273. ISBN 978-0-521-67408-9.
- ^ "Exhibition catalogue in German and English" (PDF). Berlin, Germany: Memorial for the Victims of National Socialist ›Euthanasia‹ Killings. 2018. "Euthanasia Program" (PDF). Yad Vashem. 2018. Chase, Jefferson (January 26, 2017). "Remembering the 'forgotten victims' of Nazi 'euthanasia' murders". Deutsche Welle. https://www.stiftung-denkmal.de/fileadmin/user_upload/projekte/oeffentlichkeitsarbeit/pdf/T4_Flyer_2015_EN_Web.pdf http://www.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%206303.pdf http://www.dw.com/en/remembering-the-forgotten-victims-of-nazi-euthanasia-murders/a-37286088
- ^ Hodapp, Christopher (2013). Freemasonry for Dummies, 2. Edition. Wiley Publishing Inc. ISBN 1118412087.
- ^ Peter Hoffmann "The History of the German Resistance, 1933–1945"p.xiii
- ^ The number of Slovenes estimated to have died as a result of the Nazi occupation (not including those killed by Slovene collaboration forces and other Nazi allies) is estimated between 20,000 and 25,000 people. This number only includes civilians: Slovene partisan POWs who died and resistance fighters killed in action are not included (their number is estimated at 27,000). These numbers however include only Slovenes from present-day Slovenia: it does not include Carinthian Slovene victims, nor Slovene victims from areas in present-day Italy and Croatia. These numbers are result of a 10-year-long research by the Institute for Contemporary History (Inštitut za novejšo zgodovino) from Ljubljana, Slovenia. The partial results of the research have been released in 2008 in the volume Žrtve vojne in revolucije v Sloveniji (Ljubljana: Institute for Contemporary History, 2008), and officially presented at the Slovenian National Council http://www.ds-rs.si/sites/default/files/dokumenti/zbornik_zrtve_vojne_in_revolucije.pdf
- ^ van der Zee, Henri A (1998), The Hunger Winter: Occupied Holland 1944–1945, University of Nebraska Press, pp. 304–5.
- ^ Barnouw, David (1999). De hongerwinter. ISBN 978-9065504463.
- ^ Pike, David Wingeate. Spaniards in the Holocaust: Mauthausen, the horror on the Danube; Editorial: Routledge Chapman & Hall ISBN 978-0-415-22780-3. London, 2000.
- ^ The Holocaust Chronicle, Publications International Ltd., p. 108.
- ^ Shulman, William L. A State of Terror: Germany 1933–1939. Bayside, New York: Holocaust Resource Center and Archives.
- ^ a b Johan Norberg『Progress: Ten Reasons to Look Forward to the Future.』Oneworld Publications.、1 September 2016、95頁。ISBN 978-1-78074-951-8。
- ^ a b Pinker, Steven『The Better Angels of Our Nature』Penguin Books.、2011年、194頁。ISBN 978-1-846-14093-8。
- ^ 吉田裕 2017, p. 64.
- ^ 「地域別兵員及び死没者概数表」厚生省援護局1964年3月
- ^ 伊藤正徳・5 1961, p. 209.
- ^ ロシア連邦政府等から提供された抑留者に関する資料の公表(特定者の追加掲載)について令和元年12月6日、厚生労働省。
- ^ 伊藤正徳・5 1961, p. 194.
- ^ Getty, J. Arch; Rittersporn, Gábor; Zemskov, Viktor (1993). "Victims of the Soviet penal system in the pre-war years: a first approach on the basis of archival evidence" (PDF). American Historical Review. 98 (4): 1022. doi:10.2307/2166597. JSTOR 2166597。
- ^ Wielka czystka by Alexander Weissberg-Cybulski, ISBN 83-07-02122-7
- ^ a b Lacina, Bethany (September 2009). "The PRIO Battle Deaths Dataset, 1946-2008, Version 3.0" (PDF). Peace Research Institute Oslo. pp. 359–362. 2019年8月30日閲覧。
- ^ a b Valentino (2005) Final solutions Table 2 found at pg. 75.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i "Communist Body Count". scottmanning.com. 4 December 2006.
{{cite web}}
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引数が必須です。 (説明) - ^ a b Hanna Arendt Center in Sofia, with Dinyu Sharlanov and Venelin I. Ganev. Crimes Committed by the Communist Regime in Bulgaria. Country report. "Crimes of the Communist Regimes" Conference. February 24–26, 2010, Prague.
- ^ a b Шарланов, Диню. История на комунизма в Булгария: Комунизирането на Булгариия. Сиела, 2009; ISBN 978-954-28-0543-4.
- ^ a b "CommunistCrimes.org – Poland: Communist Era". www.communistcrimes.org. 2019年5月8日閲覧。
- ^ 村知, 稔三 (2004). “1920年代初めのロシアにおける飢饉と乳幼児の生存・養育環境(5 比較教育)”. 日本教育学会大會研究発表要項 63: 118–119. doi:10.11555/taikaip.63.0_118 .
- ^ マーティン・メイリア、白須英子訳『ソヴィエトの悲劇 上巻』草思社、1997年、237-239頁。
- ^ a b “De re Militari: muertos en Guerras, Dictaduras y Genocidios”. remilitari.com. 2024年8月30日閲覧。
- ^ Heuveline, Patrick (2001). "The Demographic Analysis of Mortality in Cambodia." In Forced Migration and Mortality, eds. Holly E. Reed and Charles B. Keely. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
- ^ Marek Sliwinski, Le Génocide Khmer Rouge: Une Analyse Démographique (L’Harmattan, 1995).
- ^ Banister, Judith, and Paige Johnson (1993). "After the Nightmare: The Population of Cambodia." In Genocide and Democracy in Cambodia: The Khmer Rouge, the United Nations and the International Community, ed. Ben Kiernan. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Southeast Asia Studies.
- ^ 通常、ベトナム側の資料では相反した数を示すが、ベトナム軍の将官であるTran Cong Manは以下のように述べた。「10年に及ぶカンボジア内の作戦で15,000名が死亡し、また他に30,000名が負傷した。」したがってこの数字には、1975年から1978年までの時期の犠牲者は含まれない。 Thayer, 10
- ^ Khoo, p. 127
- ^ Campbell, Gwyn (October 1991). "The state and pre-colonial demographic history: the case of nineteenth century Madagascar". Journal of African History. 23 (3): 415–45.
- ^ Laidler (2005)
- ^ 朝鮮の人口推移:1392年(554万人)、1522年(1061万人)、1591年(1409万人)、1637年(1063万人)、1822年(1621万人)、1910年(1742万人)。Estimated data are from Kwon and Sin, "Choson." Composite recorded data are from the Hogu ch'ongsu (1789); Choson Wangjo Sillok entries and T'akchiji entries are from the Seoul National University edition of the Hogu ch'ongsu; records from 1864 to 1924 are from Zensho, Chosen. The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 68, No. 1 (Mar., 2008), pp. 244-282
- ^ Reeves, Eric. "QUANTIFYING GENOCIDE IN DARFUR: April 28, 2006 (Part 1)". 2011年7月28日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年4月27日閲覧。
- ^ トルバドール出版社。ISBN 978-1-78589-158-8。
- ^ “「EVIL DAYS - ヒューマン・ライツ・ウォッチ」”. 2024年9月5日閲覧。
- ^ a b Dillon, Michael (1998). China: A Cultural and Historical Dictionary. Routledge. p. 379. ISBN 978-0-7007-0439-2。 from J.B. Parsons, The Peasant Rebellions of the Late Ming Dynasty (University of Arizona Press), 1970.
- ^ “iafrica.com | news | world news No consensus on genocide death toll”. web.archive.org (2007年3月12日). 2024年8月12日閲覧。
- ^ 『饗場』2006年、p. 57頁。
- ^ a b A January 26, 2003 The New York Times article by John F. Burns similarly states "the number of those 'disappeared' into the hands of the secret police, never to be heard from again, could be 200,000." Noting that the Iran–Iraq War cost approximately 800,000 lives on both sides and that—while "surely a gross exaggeration"—Iraq estimated there were 100,000 deaths resulting from U.S. bombing in the Gulf War, Burns concludes: "A million dead Iraqis, in war and through terror, may not be far from the mark." See Burns, John F. (26 January 2003). "How Many People Has Hussein Killed?". The New York Times. 2016年12月4日閲覧。 Also writing in The New York Times, Dexter Filkins appeared to echo but misrepresent Burns's remark on October 7, 2007: "[Saddam] murdered as many as a million of his people, many with poison gas. ... His unprovoked invasion of Iran is estimated to have left another million people dead." See Filkins, Dexter (7 October 2007). "Regrets Only?". The New York Times. 2016年12月4日閲覧。 In turn, Arthur L. Herman accused Saddam of "kill[ing] as many as two million of his own people" in Commentary on July 1, 2008. See Herman, Arthur L. (1 July 2008). "Why Iraq Was Inevitable". Commentary. 2016年12月4日閲覧。
- ^ SOD.TAB6.1A.GIF (899×5509) (hawaii.edu)line.329
- ^ SOD.TAB6.1A.GIF (899×5509) (hawaii.edu)line.472
- ^ a b "Croatia should apologize for World War II genocide before joining the EU". Christian Science Monitor. 2 April 2010.
- ^ Rummel, R.J. "Yugoslavian Democide: Estimates, Sources, and Calculations". View Line 245.
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引数が必須です。 (説明) - ^ a b カシウス・ディオ、アーネスト・ケアリーによる翻訳。ローマ史、本69、12.1-14.3。ローブ古典図書館、9巻、ギリシャ語のテキストと英語の翻訳に直面している:ハーバード大学出版局、1914年から1927年。LacusCurtiusのオンラインおよび livius.org:アーカイブ 2016-08-13 で Wayback Machine.インターネットアーカイブの本のスキャン。
- ^ a b Buttrey, T. V. (2000). [http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1047759400019334 “Unattributed Anonymous quadrantes revisited - RICHARD D. WEIGEL, THE ANONYMOUS QUADRANTES RECONSIDERED (Annotazioni Numismatiche, Supplemento XI, Milan 1998). Pp. 20, figs. 22. ISSN 1121-7464.”]. Journal of Roman Archaeology 13: 589–590. doi:10.1017/s1047759400019334. ISSN 1047-7594 .
- ^ a b James Grant Duff "History of the Mahrattas, Vol II (Ch. 5), Printed for Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green, 1826"
- ^ a b T. S. Shejwalkar, "Panipat 1761" (in Marathi and English) Deccan College Monograph Series. I., Pune (1946)
- ^ 、[要ページ番号]頁。ISBN 9781590775264。
- ^ a b Duggan, Christopher (2007). The Force of Destiny: A History of Italy Since 1796. New York: Houghton Mifflin. p. 497.
- ^ "Twentieth Century Atlas - Death Tolls". necrometrics.com. 2019年7月29日閲覧。
- ^ "Twentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls". necrometrics.com. http://necrometrics.com/index.htm#Eth35
- ^ Doxiadis, Sacrifices of Greece, Claims and Reparations, no.19, p.75-77
- ^ Rudolph J. Rummel. "Statistics of Democide: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900." LIT Verlag, 1998. Page 168.
- ^ "Toledo Blade – Google News Archive Search". news.google.com.
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引数が必須です。 (説明) - ^ Chapuis, Oscar (1995). A history of Vietnam: from Hong Bang to Tu Duc. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-29622-2
- ^ Ullman, Richard H. (April 1978). "Human Rights and Economic Power: The United States Versus Idi Amin". Foreign Affairs. 2015年10月4日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年11月14日閲覧。
The most conservative estimates by informed observers hold that President Idi Amin Dada and the terror squads operating under his loose direction have killed 100,000 Ugandans in the seven years he has held power.
- ^ Keatley, Patrick (18 August 2003). "Obituary: Idi Amin". The Guardian. London. 2008年3月18日閲覧。
- ^ Mazower, Mark (1999). Dark Continent. p. 235. ISBN 978-0-14-024159-4。
- ^ "Data". www.hawaii.edu. 2019年11月20日閲覧。
- ^ "Atrocity statistics from the Roman Era". necrometrics.com. 2018年8月2日閲覧。
- ^ a b “よくあるご質問 – 公益財団法人 放射線影響研究所 RERF”. www.rerf.or.jp. 2024年9月17日閲覧。
- ^ "Twentieth Century Atlas – Historical Body Count". necrometrics.com. 2023年10月6日閲覧。
- ^ Rummel, Rudolph. "Pre-20th Century Democide – Estimates, Sources, and Calculations". (Line 642+645). 2019年6月12日閲覧。
- ^ Arthur W. Blume (2017). Social Issues in Living Color: Challenges and Solutions from the Perspective of Ethnic Minority Psychology. ABC-CLIO. p. 81. ISBN 9781440833373。
- ^ SOD.TAB6.1B.GIF (899×5387) (hawaii.edu)line.675
- ^ Jones, Nigel (2014年10月7日). “From Stalin to Hitler, the most murderous regimes in the world”. Mail Online. 2024年8月30日閲覧。
- ^ McKernan, Bethan (21 November 2018). "Yemen: up to 85,000 young children dead from starvation". The Guardian. 2018年11月22日閲覧。
- ^ Barksdale, Nate (16 December 2014). "8 Things You May Not Know About Henry VIII". History Channel. 2018年11月30日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2018年11月30日閲覧。
- ^ 『開原始未記』
- ^ 『開原軍記大成』
- ^ 『関原合戦記』
- ^ Miranda Twiss (1 January 2002). The most evil men and women in history. Barnes & Noble Books. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-7607-3496-4。
- ^ Stoicescu, Vlad Țepeș p. 99
- ^ "27 Bloodthirsty Facts About Vlad the Impaler". Factinate. 5 December 2017. 2019年3月8日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年3月8日閲覧。
- ^ a b Gardner, Dan (6 November 2005). "The Pariah President: Teodoro Obiang is a brutal dictator responsible for thousands of deaths. So why is he treated like an elder statesman on the world stage?". The Ottawa Citizen. 2008年6月12日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。
- ^ a b "La matanza de 1937 – La Lupa Sin Trabas". La Lupa Sin Trabas. 2013年12月3日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2013年12月3日閲覧。
- ^ a b Capdevilla (1998)
- ^ a b Eric Paul Roorda (1996). "Genocide next door: the Good Neighbor policy, the Trujillo regime, and the Haitian massacre of 1937". Diplomatic History. 20 (3): 301–19. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7709.1996.tb00269.x。
- ^ a b Greene, Anne (2001). "Haiti: Historical Setting § François Duvalier, 1957–71". In Metz, Helen Chapin (ed.). Dominican Republic and Haiti. Country Studies. Research completed December 1999 (3rd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. pp. 288–289. ISBN 978-0-8444-1044-9. ISSN 1057-5294. LCCN 2001023524. OCLC 46321054.
President Duvalier reigned supreme for fourteen years. Even in Haiti, where dictators had been the norm, François Duvalier gave new meaning to the term. Duvalier and his henchmen killed between 30,000 and 60,000 Haitians. The victims were not only political opponents, but women, whole families, whole towns. . . . In April 1963, when an army officer suspected of trying to kidnap two of Duvalier's children took refuge in the Dominican chancery, Duvalier ordered the Presidential Guard to occupy the building. The Dominicans were incensed; President Juan Bosch Gaviño ordered troops to the border and threatened to invade. However, the Dominican commanders were reluctant to enter Haiti, and Bosch was obliged to turn to the [Organization of American States] to settle the matter.
- ^ "Chad's former president has been found guilty of crimes against humanity. Who's next?". The Economist. 1 June 2016. 2016年6月2日閲覧。
- ^ “Atrocity statistics from the Roman Era”. necrometrics.com. 2024年8月30日閲覧。
- ^ a b "It has so far verified the names of 9,240 victims of the Castro regime and the circumstances of their deaths. Archive researchers meticulously insist on confirming stories of official murder from two independent sources.
Cuba Archive President Maria Werlau says the total number of victims could be higher by a factor of 10." - ^ "Information about human rights in Cuba" (Spanish). Comision Interamericana de Derechos Humanos. 7 April 1967. 2006年6月14日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2006年7月9日閲覧。
- ^ "Castro sued over alleged torture". News from Russia. 16 November 2005. 2006年2月14日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2006年7月9日閲覧。
- ^ Murphy, Cullen (17 January 2012). God's Jury: The Inquisition and the Making of the Modern World. HMH. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-618-09156-0. 2019年6月18日閲覧。
2,000 people.
- ^ Rummel, Rudolph. "Pre-20th Century Democide – Estimates, Sources, and Calculations". (Line 20). 2019年6月18日閲覧。
- ^ Bideleux & Jeffries 2007, p. 477
- ^ Crampton 1997, p. 267
- ^ White, Matthew (July 2005). "Minor Atrocities of the Twentieth Century". 2018年5月20日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2018年5月20日閲覧。
- ^ Rachel A.G. Reyes, "Fact checking the Marcos killings, 1975–1985", manilatimes.net, April 12, 2016.
- ^ "The tallies of Martial Law". Esquiremag.ph. 2019年12月12日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年12月12日閲覧。
- ^ a b c d "Atrocity statistics from the Roman Era". necrometrics.com. 2018年8月2日閲覧。
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