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利用者:Ran Ayase/sandbox/下書きその2

イギリス・イラク戦争
Mediterranean and Middle East Theatre of the Second World War中
Men in pith helmets
British soldiers looking at Baghdad, 11 June 1941
時2–31 May 1941[7][nb 4]
場所Iraq
結果 Allied victory
衝突した勢力

Allies:
イギリスの旗 イギリス

'Abd al-Ilah loyalists
オーストラリアの旗 オーストラリア[nb 1]
[[ファイル:Template:Country flag alias Dominion of New Zealand|border|25x20px|Template:Country alias Dominion of New Zealandの旗|link=]] [[Template:Country alias Dominion of New Zealand|Template:Country alias Dominion of New Zealand]][nb 2]
Greece[nb 3]

Axis Powers:

[[ファイル:Template:Country flag alias Kingdom of Iraq|border|25x20px|Template:Country alias Kingdom of Iraqの旗|link=]] [[Template:Country alias Kingdom of Iraq|Template:Country alias Kingdom of Iraq]]
ナチス・ドイツの旗 ナチス・ドイツ[5]
イタリア王国の旗 イタリア王国[6]
指揮官
イギリスの旗 Claude Auchinleck
イギリスの旗 Archibald Wavell[9]
イギリスの旗 Edward Quinan[10]
イギリスの旗 William Fraser[9]
イギリスの旗 William Slim
イギリスの旗 H. G. Smart[11]
イギリスの旗 Ouvry Roberts
イギリスの旗 John D'Albiac
イラクの旗 'Abd al-Ilah		 イラクの旗 Rashid Ali
Amin al-Husseini[12]
イラクの旗 Salah al-Din al-Sabbagh
イラクの旗 Kamil Shabib
イラクの旗 Fahmi Said
イラクの旗 Mahmud Salman
イラクの旗 Fawzi al-Qawuqji
ナチス・ドイツの旗 Werner Junck
戦力
1 infantry division[13]
2 brigade groups[nb 5]
100+ aircraft[nb 6]		 4 divisions[16]
30,000 troops[17]
116 Iraqi aircraft[18] (50 – 60 serviceable)[10]
21–29 German aircraft[5][19]
12 Italian aircraft[6]
被害者数
Casualties slight[20]
At least 200 killed[21]
28 aircraft[22]		 1,750 casualties, including 500 killed[20]
Most of the serviceable Iraqi aircraft[23]
19 German aircraft[6]
3 Italian aircraft[6]

イギリス・イラク戦争（英語: Anglo–Iraqi War，1941年5月2日-5月31日)は，第二次世界大戦中イギリス以下の連合軍により，当時親枢軸政権下にあったイラク王国に対して行われた軍事作戦，および発生した戦闘．

第二次大戦勃発当時のイラク王国は親英政権下にあったが，1941年4月に反英・親枢軸勢力によるクーデターが発生， この作戦の結果イラクは大英帝国のもと再占領され，親枢軸政権時代に追放されたイラク摂政のアブドゥル＝イラーフが復帰することになった．

背景

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委任統治領時代～クーデター前のイラク

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→「イギリス委任統治領メソポタミア」、「イラク王国 § イラク王国の興亡」、および「ナチス・アラブ関係」も参照
ラシード・アリ

イラク王国（当時メソポタミアとも呼ばれた）は1932年に独立するまで，イギリス委任統治領メソポタミアとして英国の委任統治下にあった[24]．独立前の1930年，英国はイギリス・イラン条約 (1930年)（英語版）をメソポタミアと結び，メソポタミア領内に英軍の飛行場を建設すること，イラク政権の要請に応じて英軍の国中における無制限の活動のためその施設を提供することを定めた[25][26]．条約の内容は，英国がイラク領内の石油資源を確保することが狙いであり，多くのイラク人がこの内容に憤慨[27]することとなった．

その後1937年になるとイラク領内の英陸軍は完全に撤退し，イラクは国内の安全保障について自ら責任を負うようになった[28]．一方，英空軍 (RAF)については，バスラ近郊のシェイバー飛行場，ラマーディー・ファルージャ間にあるハバニヤ飛行場 (Air Vice-Marshal H. G. Smart, also Air Officer Commanding RAF Iraq Command)の二基地における駐屯が続いた[29][30]．これらの飛行場は英国の石油利権を担保し，エジプトとインドとの航空路を確保する狙いがあった[29]．

1939年9月，イラク政府はドイツとの外交関係を断絶した[28]．1940年5月，親英派のヌーリー・アッ＝サイードに代わって，国粋・反英主義者のラシード・アーリー・アッ＝ガイラーニーがイラク首相となった．当時ラシードは公にこそ枢軸国への支持を表明していなかったが，秘密裏にアンカラ駐在のドイツ代表と接触していた[31]．続いて同年6月，イタリアがドイツの側になって参戦したとき，イラク政府は外交断絶を行わなかった[28]．1921年以来エルサレム大ムフティーであったアミーン・フサイニーの支援を受け，バグダッド駐在のイタリア公使が中心となって反英感情を醸成するプロパガンダが行われた．さらにフサイニーはイギリス委任統治領パレスチナから（パレスチナでの反英運動を主導したので）イラクへと亡命することになる[32]． 1941年1月，ラシード・アリは首相を辞任，政治的危機や内戦の可能性が迫る中ターハ・アッ＝ハシミがその後任となった[33]．

1941年クーデター

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→詳細は「1941年イラク・クーデター（英語版）」を参照
アブドゥル・イラーフ

1941年3月31日，国王ファイサル2世（当時4歳）の摂政であったアブドゥル＝イラーフ公は，自らを拘束する計画があることを知り，バグダッドからハバニア飛行場，バスラ，そして英軍の砲艦「コックチェイファー」へと逃れた[33]．4月1日，ラシード・アリと「黄金の方陣」（陸軍の4将校を中核とするグループ，英語読みでゴールデン・スクエアとも）主導のもとクーデターが決行され，ラシード・アリは自らを「国防政府首班」であると宣言した[33]．「黄金の方陣」は続けてハシミ首相を退任させ[34]，ラシード・アリは再度イラク首相に就任した．ラシード・アリは王制を廃止せず，代わりにシャリーフ・シャラフを新しい摂政へ任命し，一方ファイサル2世とその家族はクルド人指導者であるムラ・エフェンディの下へと逃れた．「黄金の方陣」はさらに親英派の国民や政治家を逮捕し始めたが，多くはトランスヨルダン王国へと脱出した．

「黄金の方陣」はこれ以上の英国関係を拒否し，イタリアとの外交関係を強化しつつ親英派の政治家を追放することを狙っていた．英国は強気の姿勢に出ることなく，彼らと交渉するだろうという見積もりがあった[35]．4月17日，ラシード・アリはイギリスとの戦争に備えて，ドイツに対して軍事支援を要請した[36]．ラシード・アリはさらに，イギリス・イラク条約の第5項に定められたイラク領内における英軍の駐屯権を制限し，英軍が新しく地上部隊を派遣したときもイラクではなくパレスチナへと移動させようとした[37]．

当時のイラク軍

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第二次大戦期のイラク地図

戦前，英国は王立イラク陸軍と空軍とにバグダッド市の警備を担当させるなどして支援を続けていた[38][39]．イラク陸軍は総兵力約60,000名からなり，4個歩兵師団と軽戦車中隊，装甲車中隊，自動車化歩兵2個大隊，機関銃，砲兵隊からなる1個独立自動車化旅団とを基幹にしていた[14]．このうち第1，第3歩兵師団，独立自動車化旅団はバグダッド近郊に[38][14] ，第2歩兵師団はキルクークに，第4歩兵師団はディーワーニーヤに駐屯とバグダッドからバスラへと至る線路上に配置されていた[18]．さらにイラクは憲兵隊と，アラブゲリラの指導者ファウジ・アル＝カウクジのもと約500名の非正規歩兵隊がいた．イギリス＝アラブ戦争のほとんどの期間を通して，ファウジは西部ルトバとラマディ―の周辺で活動していたが，のちにシリア領内へと逃れた[40][41]．


グラディエーター戦闘機（英空軍機）

イラク空軍は7個飛行隊および1個訓練飛行隊・116機の航空機を有していて，そのうち50-60機が作戦可能な状態にあった[18][10]．大半のイラク空軍戦闘機はバグダッド郊外のラシード飛行場（ヒナイディ飛行場をラシード・アリにちなんで改称したもの）あるいはモスール市に基地を置いていた．イラク空軍機はグロースター・グラディエーター複葉戦闘機，ブレダBa.65攻撃機，サヴォイアSM.79中型爆撃機，ノースロップ・ダグラス8A-5攻撃機，ホーカー・オーダックス複葉近接航空支援機，ヴィッカース・ヴィンセント複葉軽爆撃機，デハビランド・ドラゴン複葉汎用機，デハビランド・ドラゴンフライ複葉汎用機，そしてタイガー・モス訓練機を保有していた．イラク空軍にはさらに飛行隊に属していない航空機が9機，予備の機体が19機あった[18]．


イラク海軍は100トン規模のソーニークロフト型砲艦4隻，水先船1隻，掃海艇1隻を有していた．全艦とも武装のうえ，シャットゥルアラブ川の水路を基地としていた[42]．

駐イラク英軍

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→詳細は「Iraqforce」を参照

1941年4月1日現在，イラクに駐留する英軍は小規模であった．ハリー・スマート空軍少将を司令官とする駐イラク英空軍はRAF Iraq Command，陸空軍からなる各部隊を指揮下に置いていた．地上部隊としては空軍第1装甲車中隊と， 英軍将校に率いられたアッシリア人など先住民2,000名からなるイラク募兵隊があった[43]．装甲車中隊は18輛の旧式ロールス・ロイス装甲車を装備していた[44]ほか，それぞれ「ワルラス」「シール」という名をつけられた野砲運搬車を改造した2輛の戦車[45]，カーデン・ロイドMk.VI豆戦車1輛を有していた[46]．

ハバニア飛行場は第二次大戦勃発以降訓練基地として使用されており，空軍第4訓練飛行隊がかなり旧式な爆撃機，戦闘機，訓練機合計84機を有していたが，その多くは飛行不能か，あるいは攻勢目的には使えない代物であった．戦闘開始時においてハバニア飛行場には約1,000名の空軍要員がいたが，そのうちパイロットは39めいにすぎなかった[47]．1941年4月1日現在，士官の連絡用にグロースター・グラディエーター複葉戦闘機が3機，ホーカー・オーダックス複葉近接航空支援機が30機，フェアリー・ゴードン複葉爆撃機が7機，エアスピード・オックスフォード双発訓練機が27機，ホーカー・ハート複葉軽爆撃機が28機，同じく訓練機のハートが20機，ブリストル・ブレニムMk.1爆撃機が1機いた．オーダックスは20ポンド爆弾を8発搭載できたが，うち12機は250ポンド爆弾2発を搭載できるよう改装された．ゴードン，ハートは250ポンド爆弾2発搭載でき，またオックスフォードは発煙弾の代わりに20ポンド爆弾が8発搭載できた．ハート訓練機は非武装であったので5月3日，ブレニムともども飛行場から退避することになった．さらに駐イラク空軍連絡小飛行隊もハバニアに駐留しており，ヴィッカース・ヴァレンティア水上機3機を有していた[48]．またシャイバー飛行場には何機かヴィッカース・ヴィンセント複葉爆撃機を有する第244飛行隊がいた[49]．海上部隊としては，東インド戦隊に所属する英・オーストラリア・ニュージーランド・インド艦艇から支援が期待できた．

英国の反応

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英国政府とラシード・アリの「国防政府」との関係は悪化していった．クーデター以降，ウィンストン・チャーチル首相は「国防政府」の正当性を否定していた[50]．

4月2日，新任の駐イラク大使としてキハハン・コーンウォリスがバグダッドへ着任した[36][51]．コーンウォリスは過去に12年間にわたって前々代の国王ファイサル1世に対し国政の助言を行っていたなど，メソポタミアでの駐在経験の多い人物であったので，これまで以上にイラクの新政府と確固とした関係を構築できるだろうと考えられていた．しかし，コーンウォリスがイラクに着任したころには戦争突入は不可避な情勢となっていたのである[30]．

4月6日，スマートは援軍を要求したが，中東空軍司令官アーサー・ロングモアはこの要求を退けた[36]．第二次大戦のこの地点においては，英国にとってイラク情勢は必ずしも優先順位の高いものではなかったからである．チャーチルも以下のように回想している．

Libya counts first, withdrawal of troops from Greece second. Tobruk shipping, unless indispensable to victory, must be fitted in as convenient. Iraq can be ignored and Crete worked up later."[52]
重視すべきはリビアが第一，ギリシアからの撤退が第二．トブルクへの海上輸送は勝利が確実というのでない限り，状況に応じて折り合いをつけなくてはならない．イラクは無視できるし，クレタは後でどうにでもなる．
オーキンレック

英軍総参謀長ジョン・ドリル大将とインド方面軍 (India Command)司令官クロード・オーキンレック大将の両名はイラクへの武力介入に賛成であったが，中東方面軍の各部隊は既に北アフリカ戦線，東アフリカ戦線．ギリシア戦と忙殺されていたので，すぐに投入できる部隊はパレスチナ駐屯の歩兵大隊と，すでにイラクに駐留している空軍部隊のみであることを報告した[53][nb 7]．一方インドからは，前々からアングロ・ペルシア油田保護のため歩兵師団1個の動員計画があり，1940年7月には，第5インド師団に属する旅団にイラクへ移動が命令されていた[54]．もっともこの時第5インド師団は8月になって中東方面軍に編入され，東アフリカ方面作戦East African Campaign (World War II)

に参加することになったが[55]，これ以来インド方面軍はインド領内からシャイバー飛行場への部隊移動計画を調査し始めた．

英軍部隊のイラク移動開始（サビーン作戦）

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ハバニヤ飛行場へ移動の途中，アラブ軍団の兵士による警備のもと給油を受ける英空軍第94飛行隊の分遣隊．5月8日

4月8日，チャーチルはインド首相のレオ・アメリーに接触し，インドからイラクへ派遣できる部隊はないか尋ねた．アメリーは同日さらにオーキンレックとインド総督ヴィクター・ホープに接触した[56]．インド側からの返答によれば，4月10日あら英領マラヤに移動予定であった1個旅団の大部をバスラへと転用可能で，10日もすれば旅団の残りも派遣可能であるということであった． 



The response from India was that most of a brigade group due to set sail for Malaya on 10 April, could be diverted to Basra and the rest sent ten days later; 390 British infantry could be flown from India into RAF Shaibah and when shipping was available,

the force could quickly be built up to a division.[10] On 10 April this offer was accepted by London, and the move of these forces was codenamed.[54] On the same day General Archibald Wavell, Commander-in-Chief of Middle East Command, informed London that he could no longer spare the battalion in Palestine and urged diplomacy and possibly a demonstration of air strength, rather than military intervention.[10]

イラク支隊 (Iraqforce)

On 10 April, Major-General William Fraser assumed control over Iraqforce, the land forces from India headed for Basra with orders to occupy the Basra-Shabai area to ensure the safe disembarkation of further reinforcements and to enable a base to be established in that area.[10][nb 8] The attitude of the Iraqi Army and local authorities was still uncertain and attempts might be made to oppose disembarkation. Fraser was closely to co-operate with the navy commander. If the landing was opposed, Fraser was to defeat the Iraqi forces and establish a base but Fraser was not to infringe Iranian neutrality.[57] In early April, preparation for hostilities began at Habbaniya, aircraft were modified to carry bombs and light bombers such as the Audaxes were modified to carry larger bombs.[58]

On 12 April, Convoy BP7 left Karachi.[59] The convoy was composed of eight transports escorted by the Template:Sclass- Template:HMAS. The forces transported by the convoy were under the command of Major-General Fraser, the commanding officer of the 10th Indian Infantry Division. The forces being transported consisted of two senior staff officers from the 10th Indian Division headquarters, the 20th Indian Infantry Brigade, the personnel of the Royal Artillery's 3rd Field Regiment;[10] but without their guns,[60] and certain ancillary troops.[57]

英空母ハーミーズ

4月13日，ペルシア湾に展開していた砲艦「コックチェイファー」，スループ（哨戒艇に相当）「ファルマス」「シーベル」，掃海スループ「ローレンス」の4隻からなる英海軍部隊は 空母「ハーミーズ」，軽巡洋艦「エメラルド」，ニュージーランド軽巡「リアンダー」によって増強された．


On 13 April, the Royal Navy force of four ships in the Persian Gulf were reinforced by the aircraft carrier Hermes(en) and two light cruisers, Emerald(en) and Template:HMNZS. HMS Hermes carried the Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers of 814 Squadron.[59] The naval vessels which covered the disembarkation at Basra consisted of the aircraft carrier HMS Hermes, the light cruiser HMS Emerald, the light cruiser HMNZS Leander, the sloop Falmouth(en), the gunboat HMS Cockchafer, the sloop HMS Seabelle, the minesweeper sloop Template:Ship, and the sloop HMAS Yarra. On the morning of 15 April, Convoy BP7 was met at sea by HMS Seabelle from Basra. Later in the day the escort was reinforced by HMS Falmouth. On 17 April, the convoy was joined by HMIS Lawrence and then proceeded towards the entrance of the Shatt al-Arab. On 18 April, the convoy moved up the Shatt al-Arab and arrived at Basra at 0930 hrs. HMS Emerald was already in Basra.[2] On the same day, HMNZS Leander was released from support duties in the Persian Gulf. On 16 April, the Iraqi Government was informed that the British were going to invoke the Anglo-Iraq treaty to move troops through the country to Palestine. Rashid Ali raised no objection.

First arrivals in Basra

[編集]

On 17 April, the 1st Battalion King's Own Royal Regiment

国王直属王立歩兵連隊第1大隊 (1st Battalion/King's Own Royal Regiment, 1st KORR)がインド（現パキスタン）・カラチからシャイバー飛行場へと到着した


(1st KORR) was flown into RAF Shaibah from Karachi in India.[32] Colonel Ouvry Roberts, the Chief Staff Officer of the 10th Indian Infantry Division, arrived with the 1st KORR.[61][62] By 18 April, the airlift of the 1st KORR to Shaibah was completed. The troop-carrying aircraft used for this airlift were 7 Valentias and 4 Atalantas supplemented by 4 DC-2s which had recently arrived in India.[2]

On 18 April, the 20th Indian Infantry Brigade landed at Basra.[10] Brigadier Donald Powell commanded this brigade. The 20th Indian Infantry Brigade included the

第8グルカ小銃連隊第2大隊，第7グルカ小銃連隊第2大隊，第11シーク連隊第3大隊からなる第20インド歩兵旅団（ドナルド・パウエル准将）がバスラへ無血上陸を果たした．


2nd battalion 8th Gurkha Rifles, 2nd battalion 7th Gurkha Rifles, and the 3rd battalion 11th Sikh Regiment. The landing of the force transported by Convoy BP7 was covered by infantry of the 1st KORR[63] which had arrived the previous day by air.[32] The landing was unopposed.[37]

By 19 April, the disembarkation of the force transported by Convoy BP7 at Basra was completed.[2] On the same day, seven aircraft[nb 9] were flown into RAF Habbaniya to bolster the air force there.[14] Following the landing of the 20th Indian Infantry Brigade, Rashid Ali requested that the brigade be moved quickly through the country and that no more troops should arrive until the previous force had left.[64] Sir Kinahan Cornwallis, the British Ambassador to Iraq, referred the issue to London and London replied that they had no interest in moving the troops out of the country and wanted to establish them within Iraq. Cornwallis was also instructed not to inform Rashid Ali who, as he had taken control of the country via a coup d'état, had no right to be informed about British troop movements.[58]

On 20 April, Churchill had written to Anthony Eden, the Foreign Secretary, and indicated that it should be made clear to Ambassador Cornwallis that the chief interest in sending troops to Iraq was the covering and establishment of a great assembly base near Basra. It was to be understood that what happened "up country", with the exception of Habbaniya, was at that time on an "altogether lower priority." Churchill went on to indicate that the treaty rights were invoked to cover the disembarkation, but that force would have been used if it had been required. Cornwallis was directed not to make agreements with an Iraqi government which had usurped its power. In addition, he was directed to avoid entangling himself with explanations to the Iraqis.[65]

Additional arrivals

[編集]

On 29 April, having sailed from Bombay, the remaining elements of the 20th Infantry Brigade arrived at Basra on the three transports of Convoy BN1.[37][66] On 30 April, when Rashid Ali was informed that ships containing additional British forces had arrived, he refused permission for troops to disembark from them and began organising for an armed demonstration at RAF Habbaniya.[58] He did this while fully anticipating German assistance would be forthcoming in the guise of aircraft and airborne troops.[63] Rashid Ali decided against opposing the landings at Basra.[37]

Also on 29 April,[14] the British Ambassador, Sir Kinahan Cornwallis,[33] advised that all British women and children should leave Baghdad; 230 civilians were escorted by road to Habbaniya and during the following days were gradually airlifted to Shaibah.[14] A further 350 civilians took refuge in the British Embassy and 150 British civilians in the American Legation.[67]

Reinforcement of Habbaniya

[編集]

By the end of the month, Colonel Roberts and 300 of the 1st KORR had been flown from RAF Shaibah to RAF Habbaniya to reinforce the latter base.[14] Other than the 1st KORR, there were no trained British troops at Habbaniya bar the Number 1 Armoured Car Company RAF.[48]

イラク軍によるハバニア飛行場包囲

[編集]

At 03:00 hours on 30 April, RAF Habbaniya was warned by the British Embassy that Iraqi forces had left their bases, at Baghdad, and were heading west.[14] The Iraqi force was composed of between 6,000[68]–9,000[69] troops with up to 30 artillery pieces.[68] Within a few hours of RAF Habbaniya being warned, Iraqi forces occupied the plateau to the south of the base. Prior to dawn, reconnaissance aircraft were launched from RAF Habbaniya and reported that at least two battalions, with artillery, had taken up position on the plateau.[nb 10]

By 1 May, the Iraqi forces surrounding Habbaniya had swelled to an infantry brigade, two mechanised battalions, a mechanised artillery brigade with 12 3.7-inch howitzers, a field artillery brigade with 12 18-pounder cannons and four 4.5-inch howitzers, 12 Crossley six-wheeled armoured cars, a number of Fiat light tanks, a mechanised machine gun company, a mechanised signal company, and a mixed battery of anti-aircraft and anti-tank guns. This totalled 9,000 regular troops along with an undetermined number of tribal irregulars and about 50 field guns.[70]

Iraqi demands

[編集]

At 06:00 hours, an Iraqi envoy presented a message to the Air Officer Commanding, Air Vice-Marshal H. G. Smart, stating that the plateau had been occupied for a training exercise.[71] The envoy also informed Smart that all flying should cease immediately[14] and demanded that no movements, either ground or air, take place from the base.[71] Smart replied that any interference with the normal training carried out at the base would be treated as an act of war.[14] Sir Kinahan Cornwallis, the British Ambassador located at the British Embassy in Baghdad and in contact with RAF Habbaniya via wireless, fully supported this action.[14]

Crossley six-wheeled armoured car

British reconnaissance aircraft, already in the air, continued to relay information to the base; they reported that the Iraqi positions on the plateau were being steadily reinforced, they also reported that Iraqi troops had occupied the town of Fallujah.[14]

At 11:30 hours, the Iraqi envoy again made contact with Air Vice-Marshal Smart and accused the British of violating the Anglo-Iraqi treaty. Air Vice-Marshal Smart replied that this was a political matter and he would have to refer the accusation to Ambassador Cornwallis.[14] Meanwhile, Iraqi forces had now occupied vital bridges over the Tigris and Euphrates rivers as well as reinforcing their garrison at Ramadi; thus effectively cutting off RAF Habbaniya except from the air.[11]

Situation at RAF Habbaniya

[編集]

During the morning, Smart and Roberts surveyed the situation, they determined that they were exposed to attack on two sides and dominated by Iraqi artillery; a single hit from an Iraqi gun might destroy the water tower or power station and, as a result, cripple resistance at Habbaniya in one blow – the base seemed at the mercy of the Iraqi rebels. The garrison did not have enough small arms and, apart from a few mortars, no artillery support.[72]

Air Vice-Marshal Smart controlled a base with a population of around 9,000 civilians[58] that was indefensible with the force of roughly 2,500 men currently available.[73] The 2,500 men included air crew and Assyrian Levies, who were prized by the British for their loyalty, discipline and fighting qualities.[74] There was also the possibility that the Iraqi rebels were waiting for dark before attacking. As a result, Air Vice-Marshal Smart decided to accept the tactical risks and stick to Middle East Command's policy of avoiding aggravation in Iraq by, for the moment, not launching a pre-emptive strike.[7]

Further exchanges

[編集]

Further exchanges of messages took place between the British and Iraqi forces but none were able to defuse the situation. Air Vice-Marshal Smart again requested reinforcements and this time Air Officer Commanding[11] Sir Arthur Longmore[75] ordered 18 [nb 11] Vickers Wellington bombers to RAF Shaibah. The British Ambassador signalled the Foreign Office that he regarded the Iraqi actions as an act of war, which required an immediate air response. He also informed them that he intended to demand the withdrawal of the Iraqi forces and permission to launch air strikes to restore control, even if the Iraqi troops overlooking Habbaniya did withdraw it would only postpone aerial attacks.[11]

Decision to launch air strikes made

[編集]

Also on 1 May, Ambassador Cornwallis received a response giving him full authority to take any steps needed to ensure the withdrawal of the Iraqi armed forces.[11] Churchill also sent a personal reply, stating: "If you have to strike, strike hard. Use all necessary force."[71] In the event that contact broke down between the British Embassy in Baghdad and the air base in Habbaniya, Air Vice-Marshal Smart was given permission to act on his own authority.[11]

Still in contact with the British Embassy and with the approval of Ambassador Cornwallis, Air Vice-Marshal Smart decided to launch air strikes against the plateau the following morning without issuing an ultimatum; as with foreknowledge the Iraqi force might start to shell the airbase and halt any attempt to launch aircraft.[11]

Battle

[編集]

2 May

[編集]

Most combat operations of the Anglo–Iraqi War centred on the Habbaniya area. Starting early on 2 May, British airstrikes were launched against the Iraqis from RAF Habbaniya.[11] While the largest number of British troops were ultimately assembled in the Basra area, an advance from Basra was not immediately practicable and did not get under way until after Rashid Ali's government was already collapsing. Initially, the Iraqi siege of RAF Habbaniya and the ability of the besieged British force there to withstand the siege was the primary focus of the conflict. Air Vice-Marshal Smart's decision to strike at the Iraqi positions with air power not only allowed his force to withstand the siege, but to neutralise much of Iraq's air power. While the relief force from Palestine arrived in Habbaniya after the siege was over, it did allow an immediate change over to the offensive.

Siege of Habbaniya

[編集]

Air Vice-Marshal Smart's tactics to defend Habbaniya was to mount continuous bombing and strafing attacks with as many aircraft as possible.[76] At 05:00 on 2 May, 33 aircraft from Habbaniya,[11] out of the 56 operational aircraft based there,[77] and eight Wellington bombers, from Shaibah, began their attack.[11] A few of the Greek pilots being trained at Habbaniya also joined in the RAF attack.[4] Within minutes the Iraqis on the escarpment replied by shelling the base, damaging some planes on the ground. The Royal Iraqi Air Force (RIrAF) also joined in the fray over Habbaniya.[11] RAF attacks were also made against Iraqi air fields near Baghdad, which resulted in 22 aircraft being destroyed on the ground;[76] further attacks were made against the railway and Iraqi positions near Shaibah, with the loss of two planes.[11] Throughout the day the pilots, from Habbaniya, flew 193 sorties[11] and claimed direct hits on Iraqi transports, armoured cars and artillery pieces;[78] however five aircraft had been destroyed and several others had been put out of service. On the base 13 people had lost their lives and a further 29 wounded, including nine civilians.[11]

By the end of the day, the Iraqi force, outside of Habbaniya, had grown to roughly a brigade.[79]

Vickers Wellington bomber
Three Gloster Gladiators

Iraqi forces, 2 May

[編集]

The British attack on 2 May took the Iraqis completely by surprise. While the Iraqis on the escarpment carried live ammunition, many Iraqi soldiers were under the impression that they were on a training exercise. Rashid Ali and the members of the Golden Square were shocked by the fact that the British defenders at RAF Habbaniya were prepared to fight rather than negotiate a peaceful surrender. To compound the surprise and shock, many members of the Muslim Iraqi army were preparing for morning prayers when the attack was launched. When the news reached the Grand Mufti in Baghdad, he immediately declared a jihad against the United Kingdom. In addition, the flow of Iraq Petroleum Company oil to Haifa was completely severed.[80]

On 3 May, the British bombing of the Iraqis continued; troop and gun positions on the plateau were targeted as well as the supply line to Baghdad. The RIrAF base at Rashid was also attacked[79] and an Iraqi Savoia SM 79 bomber was intercepted and shot down heading for Habbaniya.[78] The following day further air attacks were carried out on RIrA troop positions and the RIrAF. A bombing raid was conducted by eight Wellington bombers on Rashid, which was briefly engaged by Iraqi fighters but no losses were suffered. Bristol Blenheims, escorted by Hurricanes, also conducted strafing attacks against airfields at Baghdad, Rashid and Mosul.[79]

On 5 May, due to a car accident, Air Vice-Marshal Smart was evacuated to Basra and then onward to India. Colonel Roberts assumed de facto command of the land operations at RAF Habbaniya after the departure of Smart.[81] Air Vice-Marshal John D'Albiac, from Greece, was to take command over aerial forces at Habbaniya[82] and of all RAF forces in Iraq. Further aerial attacks were conducted against the plateau during the day and following nightfall[79] Colonel Roberts ordered a sortie by the King's Own Royal Regiment (1st KORR) against the Iraqi positions on the plateau. The attack was supported by the Assyrian levies, some RAF armoured cars and two First World War-era 4.5-inch howitzers. The 4.5 in howitzers had been put in working order by some British gunners but had previously been decorating the entrance of the base's officers' mess.[61][83]

Iraqis abandon escarpment

[編集]
An RAF officer investigates wrecked artillery on the plateau above Habbaniya

Late on 6 May, the Iraqis besieging Habbaniya pulled out. By dawn on Wednesday 7 May, RAF armoured cars reconnoitred the top of the escarpment and reported it to be deserted. The Iraqi force had abandoned substantial quantities of arms and equipment; the British garrison gained six Czechoslovakian-built 3.7 inch howitzers along with 2,400 shells, one 18-pounder gun, one Italian tank, ten Crossley armoured cars, 79 trucks, three 20 mm anti-aircraft guns with 2,500 shells, 45 Bren light machine-guns, eleven Vickers machine guns, and 340 rifles with 500,000 rounds of ammunition.[84]

The investment of Habbaniya, by Iraqi forces, had come to an end. The British garrison had suffered 13 men killed, 21 badly wounded, and four men were suffering battle fatigue. The garrison had inflicted between 500–1000 casualties on the besieging force and numerous more men had been taken prisoner. On 6 May alone, 408 Iraqi troops were captured.[84] The Chiefs-of-Staff now ordered that it was essential to continue to hit the Iraqi armed forces hard by every means available but avoiding direct attacks on the civilian population. The British objective was to safeguard British interests from Axis intervention in Iraq, to defeat the rebels and discredit Rashid's government.[9]

Iraqi reinforcements attacked

[編集]

Meanwhile, Iraqi reinforcements were approaching Habbaniya. RAF armoured cars, reconnoitring ahead, soon discovered the village of Sin el Dhibban, on the Fallujah road, occupied by Iraqi troops. The 1st KORR and the Assyrian levies, supported by the RAF armoured cars, assaulted the position driving the Iraqis out and taking over 300 prisoners. The Iraqi force retreating from Habbaniya met with an Iraqi column moving towards Habbaniya from Fallujah in the afternoon. The two Iraqi forces met around 5マイル (8.0 km) east of Habbaniya on the Fallujah road. The reinforcing Iraqi column was soon spotted and 40 aircraft from RAF Habbaniya arrived to attack; the two Iraqi columns were paralysed and within two hours, more than 1,000 Iraqi casualties were inflicted and further prisoners were taken.[61][79] Later in the afternoon Iraqi aircraft carried out three raids on the airbase and inflicted some damage.[79]

Churchill praises Smart

[編集]

Also on 7 May, apparently unaware of Smart's injury, Churchill sent the following message to Smart:

Your vigorous and splendid action has largely restored the situation. We are all watching the grand fight you are making. All possible aid will be sent. Keep it up![85]

Over the course of the next few days, the RAF, from Habbaniya and Shaibah, effectively eliminated the RIrAF. However, from 11 May, German Air Force (Luftwaffe) aircraft took the place of the Iraqi aircraft.[82][nb 12]

枢軸陣営の介入

[編集]
→詳細は「Führer Directive No. 30」を参照

総統命令第30号


During the time leading up to the coup d'état, Rashid Ali's supporters had been informed that Germany was willing to recognise the independence of Iraq from the British Empire. There had also been discussions on war material being sent to support the Iraqis and other Arab factions in fighting the British.[要出典]

On 3 May, German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop persuaded German dictator Adolf Hitler to secretly return Dr. Fritz Grobba to Iraq to head up a diplomatic mission to channel support to the Rashid Ali regime. The British quickly learned of the German arrangements through intercepted Italian diplomatic transmissions.[86]

On 6 May, in accordance with the Paris Protocols, Germany concluded a deal with the Vichy French government to release war materials, including aircraft, from sealed stockpiles in Syria and transport them to the Iraqis. The French also agreed to allow passage of other weapons and material as well as loaning several airbases in northern Syria, to Germany, for the transport of German aircraft to Iraq.[87] Between 9 May and the end of the month, about one-hundred German and about twenty Italian aircraft landed on Syrian airfields.[88]


高橋慶史『ラスト・オブ・カンプフグルッペⅥ』

ドイツ軍部隊のイラク派遣

[編集]
イラクに展開したドイツ機はイラク空軍機のマーキングをつけた

Also on 6 May, the Luftwaffe ordered Colonel Werner Junck to take a small force to Iraq, to operate out of Mosul. Between 10 and 15 May the aircraft arrived in Mosul via Vichy French airbases, in Syria, and then commenced regular aerial attacks on British forces. The arrival of these aircraft was the direct result of fevered consultations between Baghdad and Berlin in the days following RAF strikes on the Iraqi forces above Habbaniya. The Luftwaffe force, under the direction of Lieutenant General Hans Jeschonnek, was named "Flyer Command Iraq" (Fliegerführer Irak)

イラク航空隊 (Fliegerführer Irak)


[nb 13] and was under the tactical command of Colonel Junck. On 11 May, the first three Luftwaffe planes arrived at Mosul via Syria. At least 20 bombers were initially promised; however, in the end Junck's unit consisted of between 21 and 29 aircraft, all painted with Royal Iraqi Air Force markings.[5][19][86][nb 14]


Major Axel von Blomberg was sent to Iraq with Sonderstab F ("Special Staff F"), the German military mission commanded by General Hellmuth Felmy. He was to command a Brandenburgers Commando reconnaissance group in Iraq that was to precede Fliegerführer Irak.[90] He was also tasked with integrating Fliegerführer Irak with Iraqi forces in operations against the British.[86] On 15 May, he flew from Mosul to Baghdad. On its approach to Baghdad, the aircraft was engaged by Iraqi ground fire, and von Blomberg was killed.[91]

4月当時，ドイツとソ連との間には独ソ不可侵条約がまだ有効であったので，これがイラク情勢に対するソ連の反応にも影響することになった，5月12日，ソ連はラシード・アリの「国防政府」を承認している[92] An Iraqi-Soviet exchange of notes established diplomatic relations between the two governments.[93]．

ヴィシー政権によるシリアからの支援

[編集]

On 13 May, the first trainload of supplies, from Syria, arrived in Mosul via Turkey. The Iraqis took delivery of 15,500 rifles, with 6,000,000 rounds of ammunition, 200 machine guns, with 900 belts of ammunition, and four 75 mm field guns together with 10,000 shells. Two additional deliveries were made on 26 and 28 May, which included eight 155 mm guns, with 6,000 shells, 354 machine pistols, 30,000 grenades, and 32 trucks.[94]

On 14 May, according to Winston Churchill, the RAF was authorised to act against German aircraft in Syria and on Vichy French airfields.[95] On the same day, two over-laden Heinkel 111 bombers were left in Palmyra in central Syria because they had damaged rear wheels. British fighters entered French air space and strafed and disabled the damaged Heinkels.[94]

By 18 May, Junck's force had been whittled down to 8 Messerschmitt Bf 110 fighters, 4 Heinkel He 111 bombers, and 2 Junkers Ju 52 transports. This represented roughly a 30 percent loss of his original force. With few replacements available, no spares, poor fuel, and aggressive attacks by the British, this rate of attrition did not bode well for Fliegerführer Irak. Indeed, near the end of May, Junck had lost 14 Messerschmitts and 5 Heinkels.[96]

イタリア

[編集]

On 27 May, after being invited by Germany, 12 Italian Fiat CR.42s of the 155a Squadriglia (renamed Squadriglia speciale Irak) of the Regia Aeronautica Italiana (Royal Italian Air Force) arrived at Mosul to operate under German command.[6] Also present were a Savoia-Marchetti SM.79 and Savoia-Marchetti SM.81 acting as pathfinder aircraft, which were stationed in Aleppo; personnel and equipment were brought in on three Savoia-Marchetti SM.82s.[97] By 29 May, Italian aircraft were reported in the skies over Baghdad.[98] According to Churchill, the Italian aircraft accomplished nothing.[99] It was reported that on 29 May near Khan Nuqta the Italians intercepted a flight of Hawker Audaxes escorted by Gloster Gladiators of No. 94 Squadron. In the resulting combat, two Gladiators were lost for one CR.42 shot down by Wing Commander Wightman. This was the final aerial battle of the Anglo-Iraqi War.[97] The SM.79 was destroyed on the ground in Aleppo by RAF bombers. Three CR.42s were damaged and had to be abandoned during the Axis withdrawal from Iraq. The remaining Italian aircraft were evacuated at the end of May and used to defend Pantelleria.[100]

Plans were drawn up to supply troops but the German high command was hesitant and required the permission of Turkey for passage. In the end the Luftwaffe found conditions in Iraq intolerable, as spare parts were not available and even the quality of aircraft fuel was far below the Luftwaffe's requirements. With each passing day fewer aircraft remained serviceable and ultimately, all Luftwaffe personnel were evacuated on the last remaining Heinkel He 111.[要出典]

Advance from Palestine

[編集]

On 2 May, the day AVM Smart launched his airstrikes, Wavell continued to urge for further diplomatic action to be taken with the Iraqi government to end the current situation and accept the Turkish government's offer of mediation. He was informed by the Defence Committee that there would be no accepting the Turkish offer and that the situation in Iraq had to be restored.

Rutbah

[編集]

Before Smart launched his airstrikes on 2 May, members of the Iraqi Desert Police had seized the fort at Rutbah for the "National Defence Government."[101] On 1 May, the police opened fire on British workers in Rutbah.[102] In response to these Iraqi actions, Major-General Clark had ordered the mechanised squadron of the Transjordan Frontier Force (TJFF), which was based at H4 pumping station, to seize the fort for the British. When the members of the TJFF refused, they were marched back to H3 and disarmed.[101]

The fort at Rutbah under attack from H4-based Bristol Blenheims, 9 May 1941

By the end of the first day of airstrikes, there had been reports that elements of the Royal Iraqi Army (RIrA) were advancing on the town of Rutbah.[63] C Company of the 1st Battalion The Essex Regiment were ordered to travel from Palestine to H4, between Haifa and Iraq; from here the company would join a detachment of RAF armoured cars and defend the position from the Iraqi rebels.[103]

On 4 May, Churchill ordered Wavell to dispatch a force from Palestine.[104] On 5 May, Wavell was placed in command of operations in northern Iraq and General Maitland Wilson was called back from Greece to take command of forces in Palestine and Transjordan. The Defence Committee and Chiefs-of-Staff rationale for taking military action against the Iraqi rebels was that they needed to secure the country from Axis intervention and considered Rashid Ali to have been conspiring with the Axis powers.[105] The Chiefs-of-Staff accepted full responsibility for the dispatch of troops to Iraq.[9]

On 8 May a column of the Arab Legion, under Glubb Pasha, reached the fort at Rutbah.[1] They picketed the ground surrounding the fort, to wait the RAF bombardment. The fort was defended by approximately 100 policemen, the majority of them being Iraqi Desert Police.[106] The H4-based Blenheims of 203 Squadron arrived and bombed the fort, and thinking that they had surrendered, left. The fort did not surrender and the RAF returned twice that day to bomb the fort without success.

The next day, the RAF continued to bomb the fort at intermittent intervals. One plane sustained such heavy small-arms fire that it crashed on the way home, killing the pilot. That evening, 40 trucks armed with machine guns arrived at the fort to reinforce the garrison. Half of the trucks were irregulars under the command of Fawzi al-Qawuqji and the other half were Iraqi Desert Police. Glubb decided to withdraw the troops back to H3 to await the reinforcement of the main column.

The Arab Legion returned to H3 on the morning of 10 May, and found No. 2 Armoured Car Company RAF under Squadron Leader Michael Casano waiting there. They had been sent up ahead of the main column to assist the Arab Legion in taking Rutbah. Casano took his RAF armoured cars to Rutbah whilst the Arab Legion replenished their supplies at H3. Casano's armoured cars fought an action against al-Qawuqji's trucks for most of the rest of the day, and although the result was not decisive the trucks retired to east under the cover of dark to leave the garrison to its fate. That night the RAF succeeded in a night bombing, with several bombs landing inside the fort.

Following the withdrawal of al-Qawuqji's trucks and the successful bombing by the RAF, the garrison withdrew from the fort under the cover of dark. In the morning, the Arab Legion column arrived and garrisoned the fort whilst Casano's armoured cars continued to fight remnants of the Iraqi Desert Police's forces.[107]

Habbaniya Force

[編集]

The force put together in Palestine by Wavell was codenamed Habforce, short for Habbaniya Force.[108] The force was placed under the command of Major-General George Clark. Clark was already the commander of the 1st Cavalry Division which included the 4th Cavalry Brigade, the 5th Cavalry Brigade, and the 6th Cavalry Brigade. After Wavell complained that using any of the force stationed in Palestine for service in Iraq would put Palestine and Egypt at risk, Churchill wrote Hastings Ismay, Secretary of the Chiefs-of-Staff Committee, and asked: "Why would the force mentioned, which seems considerable, be deemed insufficient to deal with the Iraq Army?" Concerning the 1st Cavalry Division specifically, he wrote: "Fancy having kept the cavalry division in Palestine all this time without having the rudiments of a mobile column organised!"[109] On balance, Wavell wrote that the 1st Cavalry Division in Palestine had been stripped of its artillery, its Engineers, its Signals, and its transport to provide for the needs of other formations in Greece, North Africa, and East Africa. While one motorised cavalry brigade could be provided, this was only possible by pooling the whole of the divisional motor transport.[110]

It was after the TJFF refused to enter Iraq that Clark decided to divide Habforce into two columns.[101][111] The first column was a flying column[102] codenamed Kingcol. Kingcol was named after its commanding officer, Brigadier James Kingstone,[108] and was composed of the 4th Cavalry Brigade, two companies of the 1st battalion The Essex Regiment, the Number 2 Armoured Car Company RAF, and 237 Field Battery of 25 pounder howitzers from 60th (North Midland) Field Regiment, Royal Artillery.[112] The second column, the Habforce main force, under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel J. S. Nichols, was composed of the remaining elements of the 1st battalion The Essex Regiment, the remainder of the 60th Field Regiment, RA, one anti-tank battery, and ancillary services. In addition to Kingcol and the Habforce main force, there was available to Major-General Clark a 400-man strong detachment of the Arab Legion (al-Jaysh al-Arabī)[1][113] in the Emirate of Transjordan. The Arab Legion consisted of three mechanised squadrons[71] transported in a mixture of civilian Ford trucks and equipped with home-made armoured cars.[114] Unlike the TJFF, the Arab Legion was not part of the British Army. Instead, the Arab Legion was the regular Army of Transjordan and it was commanded by Lieutenant-General John Bagot Glubb, also known as "Glubb Pasha."[115]

Kingcol

[編集]

During the morning of 11 May, Kingcol departed from Haifa[113] with orders to reach Habbaniya as quickly as possible.[102] The occasion was the last all-horse operation in British military history.[116] On 13 May, Kingcol arrived in Rutbah but found no military presence there. Glubb Pasha and the Arab Legion had already moved on. The flying column under Brigadier Kingstone then conducted maintenance at Rutbah before moving on themselves. On 15 May, the first contact was made with the Iraqi military when a Blenheim bomber strafed the column and dropped a bomb; no damage was inflicted and no casualties were sustained.[117][nb 15] On 16 May, further bombing attacks were made against the column when it was attacked by the Luftwaffe, again no damage was sustained but there were a few casualties.[82][118]

Also on 15 May, Fraser went sick and was replaced as the commander of the 10th Indian Division.[119] His illness had led to him losing the confidence of his own staff and he was replaced by the newly promoted Major-General William Slim. Slim would go on to show himself as one of the most dynamic and innovative British commanders of the war.[62] Also in early May, Longmore was replaced as Air Officer Commanding in the Middle East by his deputy, Sir Arthur Tedder.[30]

Arrival at Habbaniya

[編集]

During the late evening of 17 May, Kingcol reached the vicinity of Habbaniya. The next morning the column entered the RAF base[118][120] and throughout the day the remainder of the 1st battalion The Essex Regiment were airlifted into the base.[121] The force dispatched from Palestine to relieve the Iraqi siege of RAF Habbaniya arrived about 12 days after the siege was lifted.[98]

ファルージャの戦闘

[編集]

With Habbaniya secure, the next objective for British forces was to secure the town of Fallujah as a preliminary objective before being able to march on Baghdad.[82] An Iraqi Brigade group was holding the town and bridge of Fallujah denying the road to Baghdad; a further Brigade group was holding the town of Ramadi, west of Habbaniya, barring all movement westwards.[122] Colonel Roberts dismissed the idea of attacking Ramadi because it was still garrisoned heavily by the Iraqi Army and was largely cut off by self-imposed flooding. Roberts would leave Ramadi isolated and, instead, secure the strategically important bridge over the Euphrates at Fallujah.[123]

British firing party near isolated Ramadi

In the week following the withdrawal of the Iraqi forces near Habbaniya, Colonel Roberts formed what became known as the Habbaniya Brigade. The brigade was formed by grouping the 1st battalion The Essex Regiment from Kingcol with further infantry reinforcements that had arrived from Basra, the 2nd battalion 4th Gurkha Rifles, and some light artillery.[121][124]

During the night of 17–18 May, elements of the Gurkha battalion, a company of RAF Assyrian Levies, RAF Armoured Cars and some captured Iraqi howitzers crossed the Euphrates using improvised cable ferries.[nb 16] They crossed the river at Sin el Dhibban and approached Fallujah from the village of Saqlawiyah. During the early hours of the day, one company of the 1st battalion KORR were air transported by 4 Valentias and landed on the Baghdad road beyond the town near Notch Fall. A company of RAF Assyrian Levies, supported by artillery from Kingcol, was ordered to secure the bridge across the river. Throughout the day the RAF bombed positions in the town and along the Baghdad road, avoiding a general bombardment of the town because of the civilian population. On 19 May 57 aircraft began bombarding Iraqi positions within and around Fallujah before dropping leaflets requesting the garrison to surrender; no response was given and further bombing operations took place. The RAF dropped ten tons of bombs on Fallujah in 134 sorties.[126]

During the afternoon a ten-minute bombardment of Iraqi trenches near the bridge was made before the Assyrian Levies advanced, covered by artillery fire. Facing little opposition they captured the bridge within 30 minutes, they were then met by an Iraqi envoy who offered the surrender of the garrison and the town. 300 prisoners were taken and no casualties had been sustained by the British force.[127][128][129] The Luftwaffe responded to the British capture of the city by attacking the Habbaniya airfield, destroying and damaging several aircraft and inflicting a number of casualties.[130] On 18 May, Major-General Clark and AVM D'Albiac arrived in Habbaniya by air. They determined not to interfere with the ongoing operations of Colonel Roberts.[124] On 21 May, having secured Fallujah, Roberts returned to Shaibah and to his duties with the 10th Indian Infantry Division.[126]

Iraqi counterattack

[編集]

On 22 May, the Iraqi 6th Infantry Brigade, of the Iraqi 3rd Infantry Division, conducted a counter-attack against the British forces within Fallujah. The Iraqi attack started at 02:30 hours supported by a number of Italian-built L3/35 light tanks. By 03:00 the Iraqis reached the north-eastern outskirts of the town. Two light tanks, which had penetrated into the town, were quickly destroyed. By dawn British counter-attacks had pushed the Iraqis out of north-eastern Fallujah. The Iraqis now switched their attack to the south-eastern edge of the town. But this attack met stiff resistance from the start and made no progress. By 10:00 Kingstone arrived with reinforcements, from Habbaniya, who were immediately thrown into battle. The newly arrived infantry companies, of the Essex Regiment, methodically cleared the Iraqi positions house-by-house. By 18:00 the remaining Iraqis had fled or were taken prisoner, sniper fire was silenced, six Iraqi light tanks were captured, and the town was secure.[131] On 23 May, aircraft of Fliegerführer Irak made a belated appearance. British positions at Fallujah were strafed on three separate occasions. But, while a nuisance, the attacks by the Luftwaffe accomplished little. Only one day earlier an air assault coordinated with Iraqi ground forces might have changed the outcome of the counter-attack.[132]

Jezireh

[編集]

During this period of time, Glubb Pasha's Legionnaires dominated the tribal country north of Fallujah between the Euphrates and the Tigris, an area known as Jezireh. Lieutenant-General Glubb had been instructed to persuade the local tribes to stop supporting Rashid Ali's government. Using a combination of propaganda and raids against Iraqi government posts, his actions proved to be remarkably successful.[133] The British also used this period of time to increase air activity against the northern airfields of the Luftwaffe and to finally crush the German effort to support the Iraqis.[134]

Basra

[編集]
Rolls Royce armoured car

In response to the initial Iraqi moves, the 10th Indian Infantry Division, under Major-General Fraser, occupied Basra airport, the city's docks, and the power station.[67] Elements of the 20th Indian Infantry Brigade, under Brigadier Powell, were used to occupy these sites. Between 18 and 29 April, two convoys had landed this brigade in the Basra area. 2nd battalion 8th Gurkha Rifles guarded the RAF airfield at Shabaih, 3rd battalion 11th Sikh Regiment secured the Maqil docks, and 2nd battalion 7th Gurkha Rifles were held in reserve.[135] Otherwise, no major operations took place in the Basra area. The principal difficulty was that there were insufficient troops to take over Maqil, Ashar, and Basra City concurrently. While the Iraqi troops in Basra agreed to withdraw on 2 May, they failed to do so.[98] On 6 May, the 21st Indian Infantry Brigade under the command of Brigadier C. J. Weld arrived and disembarked at Basra. This was the 10th Indian Infantry Division's second brigade to arrive in Iraq.[135] The 21st Indian Infantry Brigade included 4th battalion 13th Frontier Force Rifles,[nb 17] 2nd battalion 4th Gurkha Rifles, and 2nd battalion 10th Gurkha Rifles.

Ashar

[編集]
General Wavell (right) and Lieutenant-General Quinan, April 1941

Starting on 7 May and ending 8 May, elements of the 20th Indian Infantry Brigade and the 21st Indian Infantry Brigade captured Ashar, near Basra. Ashar was well defended and the Iraqi defenders inflicted a number of casualties on the British attackers. The British units involved were A, B, C, and D companies of 2nd battalion 8th Gurkha Rifles and a half section of Rolls Royce armoured cars from 4th battalion 13th Frontier Force Rifles. 2nd battalion 4th Gurkha Rifles were held in reserve. As a result of the successful action against Ashar, Basra City was secured without a fight. However, armed resistance from Iraqi police and Army units continued until 17 May.[136] While the Basra area was now secured, it was flood season in Iraq, and the difficulty of northward movement from Basra by rail, road, or river towards Baghdad stifled further operations. In addition, Iraqi forces occupied points along the Tigris and along the railway to further discourage northward movement.[47]

On 8 May, operations in Iraq were passed, from under the control of Auchinleck's India Command, to the command of Wavell's Middle East Command.[9][137] Lieutenant-General Edward Quinan arrived from India to replace Fraser as commander of Iraqforce. Quinan's immediate task was to secure Basra as a base. He was ordered by Wavell not to advance north until the co-operation of the local tribes was fully assured. Quinan could also not contemplate any move north for three months on account of the flooding of the Tigris and Euphrates.[9][138] Directives were issued to Quinan prior to his assuming command. On 2 May, he had been directed as follows: "(a) Develop and organise the port of Basra to any extent necessary to enable such forces, our own or Allied, as might be required to operate in the Middle East including Egypt, Turkey, Iraq, and Iran, to be maintained. (b) Secure control of all means of communication, including all aerodromes and landing grounds in Iraq, and develop these to the extent requisite to enable the Port of Basra to function to its fullest capacity." Quinan was further instructed to "begin at once to plan a system of defences to protect the Basra Base against attack by armoured forces supported by strong air forces, and also to be ready to take special measures to protect: (i) Royal Air Force installations and personnel at Habbaniya and Shaiba. (ii) The lives of British subjects in Baghdad and elsewhere in Iraq. (iii) The Kirkuk oilfields and the pipe line to Haifa." Lastly, Quinan was directed "to make plans to protect the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company's installations and its British employees in South West Iran if necessary." Quinan was informed that "it was the intention to increase his force up to three infantry divisions and possibly also an armoured division, as soon as these troops could be despatched from India."[2]

Operations Regulta and Regatta

[編集]

On 23 May, Wavell flew to Basra to discuss further reinforcements and operations in Iraq with Auchinleck. Additionally, he instructed Quinan, commanding the Indian forces there, to make plans for an advance from Basra towards Baghdad.[47] On 27 May, the forces from Basra started to advance northwards. In Operation Regulta, the 20th Indian Infantry Brigade, known as the "Euphrates Brigade", advanced along the Euphrates by boat and by road. In Operation Regatta, the 21st Indian Infantry Brigade, known as the "Tigris Brigade", advanced up the Tigris by boat to Kut.[40][139] On 30 May, the 10th Indian Infantry Division's third brigade, 25th Indian Infantry Brigade under Brigadier Ronald Mountain, arrived and disembarked at Basra. The 25th Indian Infantry Brigade included 3rd battalion 9th Jat Regiment, 2nd battalion 11th Royal Sikh Regiment, and 1st battalion 5th Mahratta Light Infantry.[140] In June 1941, additional British forces arrived in Basra from India. On 9 June, the 17th Indian Infantry Brigade arrived and, on 16 June, the 24th Indian Infantry Brigade arrived.[40]

Iraqi collapse

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An RAF Fordson Armoured Car waits outside Baghdad while negotiations for an armistice take place

The British forces from Habbaniya pressed on to Baghdad after the defence of Fallujah. Major-General Clark decided to maintain the momentum because he expected that the Iraqis did not appreciate just how small and just how vulnerable his forces actually were. Clark had a total of about 1,450 men to attack at least 20,000 Iraqi defenders. However, Clark did enjoy an advantage in the air.[141]

Baghdad

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On the night of 27 May, the British advance on Baghdad began. The advance made slow progress and was hindered by extensive inundations and by the many destroyed bridges over the irrigation waterways which had to be crossed.[99] Faced with Clark's advance, the government of Rashid Ali collapsed. On 29 May, Rashid Ali, the Grand Mufti, and many members of the "National Defence Government" fled to Persia. After Persia, they went on to Germany. On the morning of 31 May, the Mayor of Baghdad and a delegation approached British forces at the Washash Bridge. With the Mayor was Sir Kinahan Cornwallis, the British Ambassador, who had been confined to the British Embassy in Baghdad for the past four weeks.[20] Terms were quickly reached and an armistice was signed.[142][143] The Iraqi armed forces in the vicinity of Baghdad still greatly outnumbered the British and the British decided not to occupy Baghdad immediately. This was done partly to disguise the weakness of British forces outside the city.[144] On 1 June, Prince 'Abd al-Ilah returned to Baghdad as the Regent and the monarchy and a pro-British government were put back in place. On 2 June, Jamil al-Midfai was named Prime Minister.[144]

Aftermath

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→詳細は「Gocol」および「Mercol」を参照

In the immediate aftermath of the fall of Rashid Ali's "National Defence Government" and the armistice, Baghdad was torn apart by rioting and looting.[98] Much of the violence was channelled towards the city's Jewish Quarter. Some 120 Jewish residents lost their lives and about 850 were injured before the Iraqi police were ordered to restore order with live ammunition.[144]

At least two British accounts of the conflict praised the efforts of the air and ground forces at RAF Habbaniya. According to Churchill, the landing of the 20th Indian Infantry Brigade at Basra on 18 April was "timely." In his opinion, the landing forced Rashid Ali into premature action. However, Churchill added that the "spirited defence" of Habbaniya by the Flying School was a "prime factor" in British success.[145] Wavell wrote that the "gallant defence" of Habbaniya and the bold advance of Habforce discouraged the Iraqi Army, while the Germans in their turn were prevented from sending further reinforcements by "the desperate resistance of our troops in Crete, and their crippling losses in men and aircraft."[20]

On 18 June, Lieutenant-General Quinan was given command of all British and Commonwealth forces in Iraq. Before this, Iraqforce was more or less limited to the forces landed at and advancing from Basra.[98]

After the Anglo-Iraq War, elements of Iraqforce (known as Iraq Command from 21 June) were used to attack the Vichy French-held Mandate of Syria during the Syria-Lebanon campaign, which started 8 June and ended 14 July. Iraq Command (known as Persia and Iraq Force (Paiforce from 1 September) was also used to attack Persia during the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Persia, which took place in August to September 1941. Forward defences against a possible German invasion from the north through the Caucasus were created in 1942, and the strength of Paiforce peaked at the equivalent of over 10 brigades before the Russians halted the German threat at the Battle of Stalingrad. After 1942, Iraq and Persia were used to transit war material to the Soviet Union and the British military presence became mainly lines of communication troops.

On 20 June, Churchill told Wavell that he was to be replaced by Auchinleck.[146] Of Wavell, Auchinleck wrote: "In no sense do I wish to infer that I found an unsatisfactory situation on my arrival – far from it. Not only was I greatly impressed by the solid foundations laid by my predecessor, but I was also able the better to appreciate the vastness of the problems with which he had been confronted and the greatness of his achievements, in a command in which some 40 different languages are spoken by the British and Allied Forces."[147]

British forces were to remain in Iraq until 26 October 1947 and the country remained effectively under British control.[要出典] The British considered the occupation of Iraq necessary to ensure that access to its strategic oil resources be maintained. On 18 August 1942, General Maitland Wilson was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Persia and Iraq Command. By 15 September, he was headquartered in Baghdad. Wilson's primary task was "to secure at all costs from land and air attack the oil fields and oil installations in Persia and Iraq." His secondary task was "to ensure the transport from the Persian Gulf ports of supplies to Russia to the maximum extent possible without prejudicing [his] primary task."[148]

While Rashid Ali and his supporters were in alliance with the Nazi regime in Germany, the war demonstrated that Iraq's independence was at best conditional on British approval of the government's actions.[要出典] Rashid Ali and the Mufti of Jerusalem fled to Persia, then to Turkey, then to Italy, and finally to Berlin, Germany, where Ali was welcomed by Hitler as head of the Iraqi government-in-exile.[要出典]

戦闘記章

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イギリス・イラク戦争に参加した英連邦軍の16部隊については「イラク 1941」


The British and Commonwealth system of battle honours recognised participation in the Anglo-Iraq War by the award to 16 units of the battle honour Iraq 1941, for service in Iraq between 2–31 May 1941. The award was accompanied by honours for three actions during the war: Defence of Habbaniya awarded to one unit for operations against the Iraqi rebels between 2–6 May, Falluja awarded to two units for operations against the Iraqi rebels between 19–22 May, and Baghdad 1941 awarded to two units for operations against the Iraqi rebels between 28–31 May.[149]

国王直属王立連隊の戦闘記章一覧．「ハバニア防衛章」「ファルージャ」「イラク1941」の記章が与えられていることがわかる

Further reading

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  • Jackson, Ashley (2018). Persian Gulf Command: A History of the Second World War in Iran and Iraq. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-22196-1 

See also

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Iraq
ポータル World War II

Notes

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Footnotes
  1. ^ HMAS Yarra, representing Australia, participated at sea.[2]
  2. ^ HMNZS Leander, representing New Zealand, participated at sea.[3]
  3. ^ Greek airmen undergoing training at Habbaniya flew sorties against the Iraqis.[4]
  4. ^ On 30 May Rashid Ali and his supporters fled to Persia. At 4 am on 31 May, the Mayor of Baghdad signed an armistice on a bridge across the Washash Canal.[8]. Mercol, Gocol, and Harcol operations against guerrillas continued into June.
  5. ^ See Iraqforce; Habforce constituted one reinforced Brigade group while the force based at RAF Habbaniya constituted the other.
  6. ^ 85 aircraft based at RAF Habbaniya.[14][15] 18 bombers were flown into RAF Shaibah as reinforcements[11] while No. 244 Squadron RAF was already based there equipped with Vicker Vincents.[15] No. 84 Squadron RAF was rebased to RAF Aqir, in Palestine, to support British ground forces during the rebellion.[15] Four Bristol Blenheims of No. 203 Squadron RAF were flown to RAF Lydda, also in Palestine, to fly combat missions over Iraq.[15]
  7. ^ See Role of Middle East Command for further details on the three Commanders-in-Chief based within the Mediterranean and Middle East.
  8. ^ Wavell indicates that Fraser commanded the forces being landed at Basra.[57]
  9. ^ Six Gloster Gladiators fighters and one Vickers Wellington bomber, carrying spare parts.[14]
  10. ^ Lyman states that on the first day the Iraqi force had in fact deployed three infantry battalions and an artillery brigade on the escarpment.[70] Wavell indicates that, on 30 April, two brigades and some armoured cars took up positions on the escarpment.[2]
  11. ^ Eight bombers from No. 70 Squadron RAF were initially dispatched and were later followed by 10 bombers from No. 37 Squadron RAF.[11]
  12. ^ The Wellington bombers, based at Shaibah, only took part in these aerial attacks up to 10 May and returned to Egypt two days later.[82]
  13. ^ Some sources indicate that this unit was named "Special Force Junck" (Sonderkommando Junck)[89]
  14. ^ Playfair states this force was made up initially of 14 Messerschmitt 110 and seven Heinkel 111s.[5] Lyman states it was 12 Heinkel 111s and 12 Messerschmitt 110s,[86] while Mackenzie states the force consisted of 15 Heinkel 111s and 14 Messerschmitt 110s.[19]
  15. ^ Accounts vary, but there are indications that the "Blenheim bomber" was a German Heinkel 111 of Fliegerführer Irak.[36]
  16. ^ The cable ferry was fashioned by a section of the Queen Victoria's Own Madras Sappers and Miners flown in from Basra. Loaded barges were hooked onto a fixed wire cable they had stretched taught across the river, which was 750フィート (230 m) wide at the point of crossing.[125]
  17. ^ Included two troops of Rolls Royce armoured cars.[135]
Citations
  1. ^ a b c Young, p. 7
  2. ^ a b c d e f Wavell, p. 4094
  3. ^ Waters, p. 24
  4. ^ a b Carr, John (2012). On Spartan Wings – The Royal Hellenic Air Force in World War Two. Pen & Sword Aviation. ISBN 978-1-84884-798-9 
  5. ^ a b c d Playfair (1956), p. 195
  6. ^ a b c d e Playfair (1956), p. 196
  7. ^ a b Playfair (1956), pp. 182–183
  8. ^ Playfair (1956), pp. 192, 332
  9. ^ a b c d e f Playfair (1956), p. 186
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h Playfair (1956), p. 179
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Playfair (1956), p. 183
  12. ^ Patterson, David (2010). A Genealogy of Evil: Anti-Semitism from Nazism to Islamic Jihad. Cambridge University Press. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-521-13261-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=lMLmK-fmf8kC&pg=PA114 
  13. ^ Mackenzie, p. 101
  14. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Playfair (1956), p. 182
  15. ^ a b c d Jackson, p. 159
  16. ^ url="https://resources.saylor.org/wwwresources/archived/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/HIST351-10.2.2-Anglo-Iraqi-War.pdf"
  17. ^ Lyman, Iraq 1941, p. 25
  18. ^ a b c d Lyman, pp. 25–26
  19. ^ a b c Mackenzie, p. 100
  20. ^ a b c d Wavell, p. 3439
  21. ^ “Resources.saylor.org”. Commonwealth War Graves Commission. 12 August 2010閲覧。
  22. ^ Playfair (1956), p. 193
  23. ^ Lyman, p. 48
  24. ^ Peretz, p. 107
  25. ^ Peretz, p. 441
  26. ^ Playfair (1954), p. 14
  27. ^ Peretz, p. 443
  28. ^ a b c Playfair (1956), p. 177
  29. ^ a b Playfair (1954), p. 15
  30. ^ a b c Lyman, p. 18
  31. ^ Youssef Aboul-Enein, Basil Aboul-Enein. The Secret War for the Middle East: The Influence of Axis and Allied Intelligence operations During WW2. p. 51-54. Naval Institute Press, 2013
  32. ^ a b c Churchill, p. 224
  33. ^ a b c d Playfair (1956), p. 178
  34. ^ Lyman, p. 12
  35. ^ Lyman, p. 13
  36. ^ a b c d Lyman, p. 16
  37. ^ a b c d Lyman, p. 31
  38. ^ a b Lyman, p. 25
  39. ^ Ammentorp, Major-General George Guy Waterhouse
  40. ^ a b c Lyman, p. 88
  41. ^ Lyman, p.21
  42. ^ Lyman, p. 26
  43. ^ Lyman, pp.23–24
  44. ^ Warwick, In Every Place, pg. 9
  45. ^ Two Dragons, or a Seal and a Walrus
  46. ^ Warwick, In Every Place, pg. 281
  47. ^ a b c Wavell, p. 3438
  48. ^ a b Lyman, p. 22
  49. ^ Lyman, p. 23
  50. ^ Lyman, p. 15
  51. ^ 引用エラー: 無効な <ref> タグです。「Wavell, p. 3437」という名前の注釈に対するテキストが指定されていません
  52. ^ Thomas, p. 127
  53. ^ Playfair (1956), pp. 178 – 179
  54. ^ a b Jackson, p. 148
  55. ^ Playfair (1956), pp. 177 – 178
  56. ^ Churchill, p. 225
  57. ^ a b c Wavell, p. 4093
  58. ^ a b c d Playfair (1956), p. 181
  59. ^ a b Lyman, p. 28
  60. ^ Mackenzie, p. 92
  61. ^ a b c Mackenzie, p. 96
  62. ^ a b Lyman, p. 20
  63. ^ a b c Martin, p. 42
  64. ^ Playfair (1956), pp. 179 – 180
  65. ^ Churchill, pp. 225–226
  66. ^ Mackenzie, pp. 92 – 93
  67. ^ a b Jackson, p. 149
  68. ^ a b Mackenzie, p. 93
  69. ^ “RAF Museum British Military Aviation in 1941 – Part 2 entry for 30 April”. RAF Museum. Template:Cite webの呼び出しエラー：引数 accessdate は必須です。
  70. ^ a b Lyman, p. 39
  71. ^ a b c d Mackenzie, p. 94
  72. ^ Richards, pp. 314–316
  73. ^ Playfair (1956), pp. 181–182
  74. ^ Len Deighton (1993), Blood, Tears and Folly
  75. ^ Playfair (1956), p. 367
  76. ^ a b Jackson, p. 151
  77. ^ Mackenzie, p. 95
  78. ^ a b “RAF Valley No 4 Flying Training School”. Royal Air Force. Template:Cite webの呼び出しエラー：引数 accessdate は必須です。
  79. ^ a b c d e f Playfair (1956), p. 184
  80. ^ Lyman, p. 43
  81. ^ Lyman, p. 19
  82. ^ a b c d e Playfair (1956), p. 188
  83. ^ Kiwarkis. “Assyrian R.A.F. Levies: 1941 Habbanyia, Battle for Habbaniya – 1941 War Diary”. 20 December 2008時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。 Template:Cite webの呼び出しエラー：引数 accessdate は必須です。
  84. ^ a b Lyman, p. 51
  85. ^ Churchill, p. 230
  86. ^ a b c d Lyman, p. 63
  87. ^ Playfair (1956), pp. 194–195
  88. ^ Churchill, p. 288
  89. ^ Weal, p. 102
  90. ^ Kurowski, p. 131
  91. ^ Lyman, p. 65
  92. ^ Time magazine, 30 June 1941
  93. ^ New York Times, 18 May 1941, p. 6
  94. ^ a b Lyman, p. 64
  95. ^ Churchill, p. 289
  96. ^ Lyman, pp. 66–68
  97. ^ a b Thomas 2002, p. 81.
  98. ^ a b c d e Wavell, p. 4095
  99. ^ a b Churchill, p. 234
  100. ^ Lembo, Daniele. "La squadriglia speciale Irak." Aerei nella Storia Magazine, Delta editions, Parma, 9/1999, pp. 34–38.
  101. ^ a b c Lyman, p. 57
  102. ^ a b c Playfair (1956), p. 187
  103. ^ Martin, pp. 42–43
  104. ^ Lyman, p.16
  105. ^ Playfair (1956), pp. 184–185
  106. ^ de Chair, p. 18
  107. ^ Glubb, p. 263-267
  108. ^ a b Jackson, p. 152
  109. ^ Churchill, 228
  110. ^ Wavell, 3433
  111. ^ Martin, p. 44
  112. ^ Martin, pp. 44–45
  113. ^ a b Martin, p. 45
  114. ^ Lyman, p. 55
  115. ^ Lyman, pp. 54–55
  116. ^ Lyman, p. 53
  117. ^ Martin, p. 46
  118. ^ a b Martin, p. 47
  119. ^ Mackenzie, p. 101.
  120. ^ Mackenzie, p. 102
  121. ^ a b Martin, p. 48
  122. ^ Martin, p. 49
  123. ^ Lyman, p. 89
  124. ^ a b Lyman, p. 69
  125. ^ Mackenzie, pp. 102–103.
  126. ^ a b Lyman, p. 75
  127. ^ Lyman, p. 74.
  128. ^ Martin, pp. 49–50
  129. ^ Playfair (1956), p. 189
  130. ^ Playfair (1956), p. 191
  131. ^ Lyman, pp. 75–76
  132. ^ Lyman, p.76
  133. ^ Lyman, pp. 76–77
  134. ^ Churchill, pp. 233–234
  135. ^ a b c Lyman, p. 32
  136. ^ Lyman, pp. 82–83
  137. ^ Mackenzie, p. 97
  138. ^ Mackenzie, pp. 101–102
  139. ^ Lyman, p. 17
  140. ^ Lyman, p. 36
  141. ^ Lyman, p. 77
  142. ^ Lyman, pp. 84–85
  143. ^ Mackenzie, p. 104
  144. ^ a b c Lyman, p. 86
  145. ^ Churchill, pp. 235–236
  146. ^ Mead (2007), p. 476
  147. ^ Auchinleck, p. 4215
  148. ^ Wilson, p. 4333
  149. ^ Rodger, p. 271

References

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Books

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  • Auchinleck, Claude (1946). Despatch on Operations in the Middle East From 5th July, 1941 to 31st October 1941. London: War Office  in "No. 37695". The London Gazette (Supplement) (英語). 20 August 1946. pp. 4215–4230.
  • de Chair, Somerset (1943). The Golden Carpet (2nd ed.). London: Faber and Faber. OCLC 633936612 
  • Churchill, Winston (1985) [1950]. “14: The Revolt in Iraq”. The Grand Alliance. The Second World War. III. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0-395-41057-6 
  • Dudgeon, Anthony (2000). Hidden Victory: The Battle of Habbaniya, May 1941. Stroud and Charleston: Tempus Publishing. ISBN 0-7524-2001-1 
  • Glubb, John Bagot (1948). The Story of the Arab Legion. Mazal Holocaust Collection. London: Hodder & Stoughton. OCLC 798611 
  • Jackson, Ashley (2006). The British Empire and the Second World War. London: Hambledon Continuum. ISBN 1-85285-417-0 
  • James, Barrie G. (2009). Hitler's Gulf War, The Fight for Iraq 1941. Barnsley: Pen & Sword Aviation. ISBN 978-1-84884-090-4 
  • Kiwarkis, Gaby. “Assyrian RAF Levies”. 1 January 2016閲覧。
  • Kurowski, Franz (2005). The Brandenburger Commandos: Germany's Elite Warrior Spies in World War II. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books. ISBN 0-8117-3250-9 
  • Lyman, Robert (2006). Iraq 1941: The Battles for Basra, Habbaniya, Fallujah and Baghdad. Campaign. Oxford: Osprey. ISBN 1-84176-991-6 
  • Mackenzie, Compton (1951). Eastern Epic: September 1939 – March 1943 Defence. 1. London: Chatto & Windus. OCLC 59637091 
  • Martin, Colonel Thomas Alexander (1952). The Essex Regiment, 1929–1950. Brentwood: Essex Regiment Association. OCLC 4045659 
  • Mead, Richard (2007). Churchill's Lions: A Biographical Guide to the Key British Generals of World War II. Stroud: Spellmount. ISBN 978-1-86227-431-0 
  • Peretz, Don (2004). The Middle East Today. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-027594-576-3 
  • Playfair, Major-General I. S. O.; Stitt RN, Commander G. M. S.; Molony, Brigadier C. J. C.; Toomer, Air Vice-Marshal S. E. (1954). Butler, J. R. M.. ed. The Mediterranean and Middle East: The Early Successes Against Italy (to May 1941). History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series. I. 3rd impression, 1959. HMSO. OCLC 888934805 
  • Playfair, Major-General I. S. O.; with Flynn RN, Captain F. C.; Molony, Brigadier C. J. C.; Toomer, Air Vice-Marshal S. E. (2004) [1st. pub. HMSO 1956]. Butler, J. R. M.. ed. The Mediterranean and Middle East: The Germans come to the help of their Ally (1941). History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series. II. Naval & Military Press. ISBN 1-84574-066-1 
  • Rodger, Alexander (2003). Battle Honours of the British Empire and Commonwealth Land Forces. Marlborough: The Crowood Press. ISBN 1-86126-637-5 
  • Saunders, Hilary Adrian St George; Richards, Denis (1953). The Royal Air Force 1939–1945. I. London: HMSO. OCLC 64981511 
  • Thomas, Andrew (2002). Gloster Gladiator Aces. Oxford: Osprey. ISBN 1-84176-289-X 
  • Thomas, David A (1972). Nazi Victory: Crete 1941. New York: Stein and Day. ISBN 0812815599 
  • Warwick, Nigel W. M. (2014). In Every Place: The RAF Armoured Cars in the Middle East 1921–1953. Rushden: Forces & Corporate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-9574725-2-5 
  • Waters, S. D. (2008). HMNZS Leander. Wellington, NZ: Merriam Press. ISBN 978-1-4357-5892-6 
  • Wavell, Archibald (1946). Despatch on Operations in the Middle East From 7th February, 1941 to 15th July 1941. London: War Office  in "No. 37638". The London Gazette (Supplement) (英語). 3 July 1946. pp. 3423–3444.
  • Wavell, Archibald (1946). Despatch on Operations in Iraq, East Syria and Iran from 10th April, 1941 to 12th January, 1942. London: War Office  in "No. 37685". The London Gazette (Supplement) (英語). 13 August 1946. pp. 4093–4102.
  • Weal, John (1999). Messerschmitt Bf 110 Zerstörer Aces of World War 2. Oxford: Osprey. ISBN 1855327538 
  • Wilson, Maitland (1946). Despatch on the Persia and Iraq Command Covering the Period from 21st August, 1942, to 17th February, 1943. London: War Office  in "No. 37703". The London Gazette (Supplement) (英語). 28 August 1946. pp. 4333–4340.
  • Young, Peter (1972). The Arab Legion. Men-at-Arms. Oxford: Osprey. ISBN 0850450845 
  • Lake, Alan. Flying Units of the RAF - The ancestry, formation and disbandment of all flying units from 1912. Airlife Publishing Ltd, Shrewsbury, UK, 1999, ISBN 1840370866.
  • Lunt, James. Imperial Sunset - Frontier Soldiering in the 20th Century. Macdonald, London and Sydney, 1981.

Websites

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Further reading

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[編集]
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