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A citation is a reference to a source (not always the original source), published or unpublished. A bibliographic citation is a reference to a book, article, web page, or other published item. Citations of both types should supply sufficient detail to identify the item uniquely.^[1] Different citation systems and styles are used in scientific citation, legal citation, prior art, and the arts and the humanities.

A citation number, used in some systems, is a number or symbol added inline and usually in superscript, to refer readers to a footnote or endnote that cites the source. In other citation systems, an inline parenthetical reference is used rather than a citation number, with limited information such as the author's last name, year of publication, and page number referenced; a full identification of the source will then appear in an appended bibliography.

Citation content

Citation content may include:

BOOK: of a book: author(s), book title, publisher, date of publication, and page number(s) if appropriate;^[2]^[3]
JOURNAL: of an article: author(s), article title, journal title, volume and issue numbers, date of publication, and page number(s);
NEWSPAPER: of a newspaper: author(s), article title, name of newspaper, section title and page number(s) if desired, date of publication;
WEB SITE: of a work on the Web: author(s), article and publication title where appropriate, as well as a URL, and a date when the site was accessed.
PLAY: of a play: inline citations offer part, scene, and line numbers, the latter separated by periods: 4.452 refers to scene 4, line 452. For example, "In Eugene Onegin, Onegin rejects Tanya when she is free to be his, and only decides he wants her when she is already married" (Pushkin 4.452-53).^[4]
POEM: of a poem: If the text is more than one line of the poem, use a slash (/) with a space before and after it to indicate the separate lines. Include the word "line" or "lines" in the Harvard reference. For example: "For I must love because I live / And life in me is what you give." (Brennan, lines 15-16).^[4]

Unique identifiers

Along with information such as author(s), date of publication, title and page numbers, citations may also include unique identifiers depending on the type of work being referred to.

Citations of books may include an International Standard Book Number (ISBN).
Specific volumes, articles or other identifiable parts of a periodical, may have an associated Serial Item and Contribution Identifier (SICI).
Electronic documents may have a digital object identifier (DOI).
Biomedical research articles may have a PubMed Identifier (PMID).

Citation systems

Broadly speaking, there are two citation systems:^[5]^[6]^[7]

Parenthetical systems

詳細は「Parenthetical referencing」を参照

In-text parenthetical citations include abbreviated source information (e.g., author and page number) within parentheses in the article, paper, or book. This is supplemented by complete source information in a list of Works Cited, References, or Bibliography at the end of the paper.

For example, an excerpt from the text of a paper using a "Harvard referencing" parenthetical reference system might look like this:

"The five stages of grief are denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance" (Kübler-Ross, 1969, chap. 3).

The entry in the References list would look like this:

Kübler-Ross, E. (1969). On death and dying. New York: Macmillan.

Using the MLA style format of parenthetical reference, an excerpt from the text of an article, paper, or book might look like this:

"It has been said that knowledge, or the problem of knowledge, is the scandal of philosophy. The scandal is philosophy's apparent inability to show how, when and why we can be sure that we know something or, indeed, that we know anything" (Smith 1).

The entry in the "Works Cited" list would look like this:

Smith, Barbara Herrnstein. Scandalous Knowledge: Science, Truth and the Human. Durham and London: Duke UP, 2005.

Note systems

Note systems involve the use of sequential numbers in the text which refer to either footnotes (notes at the end of the page) or endnotes (a note on a separate page at the end of the paper) which gives the source detail. The notes system may or may not require a full bibliography, depending on whether the writer has used a full note form or a shortened note form.

For example, an excerpt from the text of a paper using a notes system without a full bibliography could look like this:

"The five stages of grief are denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance."¹

The note, located either at the foot of the page (footnote) or at the end of the paper (endnote) would look like this:

1. Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, On Death and Dying (New York: Macmillan, 1969) 45–60.

In a paper which contains a full bibliography, the shortened note could look like this:

1. Kübler-Ross, On Death and Dying 45–60.

and the bibliography entry, which would be required with a shortened note, would look like this:

Kübler-Ross, Elisabeth. On Death and Dying. New York: Macmillan, 1969.

Citation styles

Template:Styles

詳細は「APA style」、「MLA style」、「The Chicago Manual of Style」、「Bluebook」、「ASA style」、「Harvard referencing」、および「Vancouver system」を参照

Citation styles can broadly be divided into styles common to the Humanities and the Sciences, though there is considerable overlap. Some style guides, such as the Chicago Manual of Style, are quite flexible and cover both parenthetical and note citation systems.^[7] Others, such as MLA and APA styles, specify formats within the context of a single citation system.^[6] These may be referred to as citation formats as well as citation styles.^[8]^[9]^[10] The various guides thus specify order of appearance, for example, of publication date, title, and page numbers following the author name, in addition to conventions of punctuation, use of italics, emphasis, parenthesis, quotation marks, etc, particular to their style.

A number of organizations have created styles to fit their needs, consequently a number of different guides exist. Individual publishers often have their own in-house variations as well, and some works are so long established as to have their own citation methods too: Stephanus pagination for Plato; Bekker numbers for Aristotle; citing the Bible by book, chapter and verse; or Shakespeare notation by play, act and scene.

Some examples of style guides include:

Humanities

The American Political Science Association (APSA) relies on the Style Manual for Political Science, a style often used by political science scholars and historians. It is largely based on that of the Chicago Manual of Style.
The ASA style of American Sociological Association is one of the main styles used in sociological publications.
The Chicago Style (CMOS) was developed and its guide is The Chicago Manual of Style. Some social sciences and humanities scholars use the nearly identical Turabian style. Used by writers in many fields.
The Columbia Style was made by Janice R. Walker and Todd Taylor to give detailed guidelines for citing internet sources. Columbia Style offers models for both the humanities and the sciences.
Evidence Explained: Citing History Sources from Artifacts to Cyberspace by Elizabeth Shown Mills covers primary sources not included in CMOS, such as censuses, court, land, government, business, and church records. Includes sources in electronic format. Used by genealogists and historians.
Harvard referencing (or author-date system) is a specific kind of parenthetical referencing. Parenthetical referencing is recommended by both the British Standards Institution and the Modern Language Association. Harvard referencing involves a short author-date reference, e.g., "(Smith, 2000)", being inserted after the cited text within parentheses and the full reference to the source being listed at the end of the article.
MLA style was developed by the Modern Language Association and is most often used in the arts and the humanities, particularly in English studies, other literary studies, including comparative literature and literary criticism in languages other than English ("foreign languages"), and some interdisciplinary studies, such as cultural studies, drama and theatre, film, and other media, including television. This style of citations and bibliographical format uses parenthetical referencing with author-page (Smith 395) or author-[short] title-page (Smith, Contingencies 42) in the case of more than one work by the same author within parenttheses in the text, keyed to an alphabetical list of sources on a "Works Cited" page at the end of the paper, as well as notes (footnotes or endnotes). See The MLA Style Manual and The MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, particularly Citation and bibliography format.^[11]
The MHRA Style Guide is published by the Modern Humanities Research Association (MHRA) and most widely used in the arts and humanities in the United Kingdom, where the MHRA is based. It is available for sale both in the UK and in the United States. It is similar to MLA style, but has some differences. For example, MHRA style uses footnotes that reference a citation fully while also providing a bibliography. Some readers find it advantageous that the footnotes provide full citations, instead of shortened references, so that they do not need to consult the bibliography while reading for the rest of the publication details.^[12]

Legal

The Bluebook is a citation system traditionally used in American academic legal writing, and the Bluebook (or similar systems derived from it) are used by many courts.^[13] At present, academic legal articles are always footnoted, but motions submitted to courts and court opinions traditionally use inline citations which are either separate sentences or separate clauses.

The legal citation style used almost universally in Canada is based on the Canadian Guide to Uniform Legal Citation (aka McGill Guide), published by McGill Law Journal.^[14]

Sciences, mathematics, electrical engineering, physiology and medicine

The American Chemical Society style, or ACS style, is often used in chemistry and other physical sciences. In ACS style references are numbered in the text and in the reference list, and numbers are repeated throughout the text as needed.
In the style of the American Institute of Physics (AIP style), references are also numbered in the text and in the reference list, with numbers repeated throughout the text as needed.
Styles developed for the American Mathematical Society (AMS), or AMS styles, such as AMS-LaTeX, are typically implemented using the BibTeX tool in the LaTeX typesetting environment. Brackets with author’s initials and year are inserted in the text and at the beginning of the reference. Typical citations are listed in-line with alphabetic-label format, e.g. [AB90]. This type of style is also called a "Authorship trigraph."
The Vancouver system, recommended by the Council of Science Editors (CSE), is used in medical and scientific papers and research.
- In one major variant, that used by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (AME), citation numbers are included in the text in square brackets rather than as superscripts. All bibliographical information is exclusively included in the list of references at the end of the document, next to the respective citation number.
- The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) is reportedly the original kernel of this biomedical style which evolved from the Vancouver 1978 editors' meeting.^[15] The MEDLINE/PubMed database uses this citation style and the National Library of Medicine provides "ICMJE Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals -- Sample References".^[16]
The style of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), or IEEE style, encloses citation numbers within square brackets and arranges the reference list by the order of citation, not by alphabetical order.
Pechenik Citation Style is a style described in A Short Guide to Writing about Biology, 6th ed. (2007), by Jan A. Pechenik.^[17]

Social sciences

The style of the American Psychological Association, or APA style, published in The Style Manual of the APA]], is most often used in social sciences. APA style uses Harvard referencing within the text, listing the author's name and year of publication, keyed to an alphabetical list of sources at the end of the paper on a References page.
The American Political Science Association publishes both a style manual and a style guide for publications in this field.^[18]

Citation problems

Faulty citations include omissions of relevant papers, incorrect references, and quotation errors that misreport findings. This greatly impedes the growth of scientific knowledge because authors who fail to correctly report relevant studies are passing on false information to their readers. Furthermore, these papers are considered to be legitimate academic sources and thus more likely to be cited themselves by other papers in the future. Hence, this creates a snowball effect often leading to the proliferation of false information.^[19]

Research has shown that authors often overlook relevant research. This often occurs because they search for evidence only within their own discipline. In a study on escalation bias, papers that supported commonly-held beliefs were cited nine times more frequently than those that conflicted with common beliefs.^[20]

Research done on this subject by marketing professor J. Scott Armstrong suggests that to prevent faulty citations, authors should use the verification of citations procedure - meaning they should attempt to contact original authors to ensure that they properly cite any studies they rely on to support their main findings. Furthermore, journal editors should require authors to confirm that they have read the papers that they have cited and that they have made reasonable attempts to verify citations. This will help to reduce errors in the reference list, reduce the number of spurious references, and reduce the likelihood of overlooking relevant studies. Once a paper has been published, journals should make it easy for researchers to post relevant studies that have been overlooked. These procedures should help to ensure that new studies build properly on prior research.^[21] There are now services which help check references such as WriteCheck which aim to identify unoriginal content in student work using powerful plagiarism detection databases.

Notes

^ Google: Definitions of Bibliographic Citation on the Web
^ Long Island University.
^ Duke University Libraries 2007.
^ ^a ^b Brigham Young University 2008.
^ University of Maryland 2006.
^ ^a ^b Yale University 2008.
^ ^a ^b Colorado State University 2008.
^ California State University 2007.
^ Lesley University 2007.
^ Rochester Institute of Technology 2003.
^ The field of Communication (or Communications) overlaps with some of the disciplines also covered by the MLA and has its own disciplinary style recommendations for documentation format; the style guide recommended for use in student papers in such departments in American colleges and universities is often The Publication Manual of the APA (American Psychological Association); designated for short as "APA style".
^ The 2nd edition (updated April 2008) of the MHRA Style Guide is downloadable for free from the Modern Humanities Research Association official Website.
^ Martin 2007.
^ Canadian Guide to Uniform Legal Citation (Cite Guide). McGill Law Journal. Updated October 2008. Retrieved on 2009-02-05.
^ Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals.
^ International Committee of Medical Journal Editors. "ICMJE Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals -- Sample References".
^ Pechenik Citation Style QuickGuide (PDF). University of Alberta, Augustana Campus, Canada. Web. November 2007.
^ Stephen Yoder, ed. (2008). The APSA Guide to Writing and Publishing and Style Manual for Political Science. Rev. ed. August 2006. APSAnet.org Publications. Retrieved on 2009-02-05.
^ Wright & Armstrong 2008.
^ Armstrong 1996.
^ Wright & Armstrong 2008.

References

“ACS (American Chemical Society) Style Guidelines Quick Guide”. Berkeley.edu (2006年). 2008年2月3日閲覧。
“Anatomy of a Citation”. LIUNet.edu. 2008年2月3日閲覧。
“APA Citation Format”. Lesley.edu (2005年). 2008年2月11日閲覧。
“APA Citation Format”. RIT.edu (2003年). 2008年2月11日閲覧。
Armstrong, J Scott (July 1996). “The Ombudsman: Management Folklore and Management Science - On Portfolio Planning, Escalation Bias, and Such”. Interfaces (Providence: Institute of Management Sciences) 26 (4): 28–42. OCLC 210941768.
“ASME Journals Digital Submission Tool”. ASME.org. American Society of Mechanical Engineers. 2008年2月8日閲覧。
“Book with a Single Author”. Duke.edu (2007年). 2008年2月4日閲覧。
“CBE - Council of Biology Editors (Citation/Sequence System)”. ColoState.edu (2008年). 2008年2月11日閲覧。
“Citation Formats & Style Manuals”. CSUChico.edu (2007年). 2008年2月11日閲覧。
“Citation Systems and Style Manuals”. UMD.edu (2006年). 2008年2月11日閲覧。
“How to cite sources in the body of your paper”. BYUI.edu (2008年). 2008年2月8日閲覧。
“IEEE Editorial Style Manual”. IEEE.org (2007年). 2008年2月8日閲覧。
Martin, Peter W (2007年5月). “Introduction to Basic Legal Citation (LII 2007 ed.)”. Cornell.edu. 2008年2月3日閲覧。
“MHRA Style Guide: A Handbook for Authors, Editors, and Writers of Theses”. MHRA.org.uk. Modern Humanities Research Association (2008年). 2009年2月5日閲覧。 (2nd ed.)
Pechenik, Jan A (2004). A Short Guide to Writing About Biology (5th edition ed.). New York: Pearson/Longman. ISBN 0321159810. OCLC 52166026
“Why Are There Different Citation Styles?”. Yale.edu (2008年). 2008年2月11日閲覧。
Wright, Malcolm; Armstrong, J Scott (March 2008). “The Ombudsman: Verification of Citations: Fawlty Towers of Knowledge?”. Interface (Providence: Institute of Management Sciences) 38 (2): 125–139. OCLC 229821277.