利用者:AK-TUFS/sandbox
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| Palauan | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| a tekoi er a Belau | ||||
| 話される国 | Palau, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands | |||
| 創案時期 | 2008 | |||
| 話者数 | 17,000 | |||
| 言語系統 |
オーストロネシア語族
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| 表記体系 | Latin, formerly katakana[1] | |||
| 公的地位 | ||||
| 公用語 |
 パラオ | |||
| 統制機関 | Palau Language Commission | |||
| 言語コード | ||||
| ISO 639-2 |
pau | |||
| ISO 639-3 |
pau | |||
| Glottolog |
pala1344[2] | |||
| Linguasphere |
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Palauan (a tekoi er a Belau) is one of the two official languages of the Republic of Palau, the other being English. It is a member of the Austronesian family of languages, and is one of only two indigenous languages in Micronesia that is not part of the Oceanic branch of that family, the other being Chamorro (see Dempwolff 1934, Blust 1977, Jackson 1986, and Zobel 2002). Most researchers agree that Palauan and Chamorro are instead outliers on the Sunda-Sulawesi branch of the Austronesian language family, though it has been claimed that Palauan constitutes a possibly independent branch of the Malayo-Polynesian languages (Dyen 1965). The Palauan language is widely used in day-to-day life in Palau.
音韻体系
[編集]パラオ語における音素には、6個の母音と10個の子音があるとされる[3]。 国際音声記号（IPA）に従うと、以下のように示される。
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パラオ語の音素は比較的少ないが、多くの音素が前後の音環境に応じ異音として現れる（b→pʰなど）。異音を含めた完全な子音の一覧は、以下の通りとなる。
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二重母音
[編集]パラオ語には複数の二重母音が存在する。そのリストは以下のとおりである{Zuraw (2003)｝。
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The extent to which it is accurate to characterize each of these vowel sequences as diphthongs has been a matter of debate, as in Wilson 1972, Flora 1974, Josephs 1975, and Zuraw 2003. Nevertheless, a number of the sequences above, such as /ui/, clearly behave as diphthongs given their interaction with other aspects of Palauan phonology like stress shift and vowel reduction. Others do not behave as clearly like monosyllabic diphthongs.
表記体系
[編集]1970年代初頭、パラオ正書法委員会がハワイ大学の言語学者たちの協力のもとアルファベットを用いたパラオ語の表記方法を定めた[4]． 考案された正書法ではおおむね「1音素につき1文字」の原則の下、子音18個（うち6個は借用語のみに用いられる）と母音10個に対し、それぞれの文字が用いられる。 The 20 vowel sequences listed under Diphthongs are also all officially recognized in the orthography.
「ch」は現代パラオ語では常に声門破裂音 [[[ʔ]]]として発音される。これはドイツによる植民地支配の時代に発展した表記法において、「ch」を無声軟口蓋摩擦音 [x]として発音したことの名残である。現代パラオ語においては無声軟口蓋摩擦音 [x]はすべて声門破裂音 [ʔ]に置きかえられており、「ch」の綴りのみが残されている。
Most of the letters/graphemes in written Palauan correspond to phonemes that can be represented by the corresponding segments in the International Phonetic Alphabet (Nuger 2016:308), e.g., Palauan b is the phoneme /b/. Three notable exceptions are worth mentioning. The first is ch, which is invariably pronounced as a glottal stop [ʔ]. The ch digraph is a remnant of an earlier writing system developed during German occupation when the glottal stop was pronounced as a fricative [x]. Some older Palauans still remember their grandparents pronouncing ch this way. In modern Palauan usage the sound [x] has been completely replaced by [ʔ], but the ch spelling persists. The second is e, which represents either the full vowel [ɛ] in primary and secondary stressed syllables, or a schwa [ə] in unstressed syllables; the conditions are similar to those of English vowel reduction (and note that stress in Palauan is largely penultimate, with many semi-regular exceptions). The third is the digraph ng, which is a (phonemic) velar nasal /ŋ/ but can assimilate to be pronounced as [m] or [n]. There is no phonemic /n/ in Palauan.
On May 10, 2007, the Palauan Senate passed Bill No. 7-79, which mandates that educational institutions recognize the Palauan orthography laid out in Josephs 1997 and Josephs 1999. The bill also establishes an Orthography Commission to maintain the language as it develops as well as to oversee and regulate any additions or modifications to the current official orthography.
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Morphology
[編集]Noun Inflection
[編集]Palauan nouns inflect based on humanness and number via the plural prefix re-, which attaches to plural human nouns (see Josephs 1975:43). For example, the word chad "person" is a human noun that is unambiguously singular, whereas the noun rechad people is a human noun that is unambiguously plural. Non-human nouns do not display this distinction, e.g., the word for stone, bad, can denote either a singular "stone" or multiple "stones."[5]
Some possessed nouns in Palauan also inflect to agree with the person, number, and humanness of their possessors. For example, the unpossessed noun tebel means simply "table," whereas one of its possessed forms tebelek means "my table." Possessor agreement is always registered via the addition of a suffix to the noun (also triggering a shift in stress to the suffix). The possessor agreement suffixes have many different irregular forms that only attach to particular nouns, and they must be memorized on a noun-by-noun basis (Josephs 1997:96). However, there is a "default" set (see Josephs 1997:93 and Nuger 2016:28), shown below:
| Singular | Plural | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Inclusive | Exclusive | |||
| 1st person | -ek | -id | -am | |
| 2nd person | -em | -iu | ||
| 3rd person | human | -el | -ir | |
| non-human | -el | -el | ||
Syntax
[編集]Word order
[編集]The word order of Palauan is usually thought to be verb–object–subject (VOS), but this has been a matter of some debate in the linguistic literature.[6] Those who accept the VOS analysis of Palauan word order generally treat Palauan as a pro-drop language with preverbal subject agreement morphemes, final pronominal subjects are deleted (or null).
Example 1: Ak milenga er a ringngo pro. (means: "I ate the apple.")
In the preceding example, the null pronoun pro is the subject "I," while the clause-initial ak is the first person singular subject agreement morpheme.
On the other hand, those who have analyzed Palauan as SVO necessarily reject the pro-drop analysis, instead analyzing the subject agreement morphemes as subject pronouns. In the preceding example, SVO-advocates assume that there is no pro and that the morpheme ak is simply an overt subject pronoun meaning "I." One potential problem with this analysis is that it fails to explain why overt (3rd person) subjects occur clause-finally in the presence of a co-referring 3rd person "subject pronoun" --- treating the subject pronouns as agreement morphemes circumvents this weakness. Consider the following example.
Example 2: Ng milenga er a ringngo an Olilai. (means: "Olilai ate the apple.")
Proponents of the SVO analysis must assume a shifting of the subject a Alan "Alan" from clause-initial to clause-final position, a movement operation that has not received acceptance cross-linguistically, but see Josephs 1975 for discussion.
Palauan phrases
[編集]Some common and useful words and phrases in Palauan are listed below, with their English translations.[7]
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Palauan numerals
[編集]1 to 10
- tang
- erung
- edei
- euang
- eim
- elolm
- euid
- eai
- etiu
- tacher
Palauans have different numbers for different objects. For example, to count people it is: tang, terung, tedei, teuang, teim, telolem, teuid, teai, tetiu, and teruich. Traditionally, there were separate counting sets for people, things, counting, ordinals, bunches of bananas, units of time, long objects, and rafts; however, several of these are no longer used.[8]
Notes
[編集]- ^ Katakana is no longer widely used, since the orthography based on Latin script has received official status and is taught in schools. But see Matsumoto 2001:90.
- ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin et al., eds (2016). “Palauan”. Glottolog 2.7. Jena: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History
- ^ Only 5 vowel phonemes are listed in Wilson 1972 because she avoids the issue of how to treat indeterminate underlying vowels. The vowel chart here tentatively reflects the analysis of Flora (1974), who treats indeterminate vowels as instances of underlying ə. Furthermore, the analysis of Palauan [w] in Flora 1974 treats it as a phoneme distinct from /u/, while [w] is merely an allophone of /u/ according to Wilson (1972). The consonant chart tentatively reflects Wilson's analysis.
- ^ The final report of the Palau Orthography Committee was released as Yaoch et al. 1972.
- ^ Note that some non-human animate plural nouns (animals) can stylistically inflect with the plural prefix re- if they are considered to be "sufficiently human" in some contexts, such as when talking about household pets that are like family members, or when anthropomorphized animal characters are described in stories. See Nuger 2016:172, fn. 9.
- ^ See Waters 1980, Georgopoulos 1986, and Georgopoulos 1991 for arguments in favor of treating Palauan as VOS. cf. Wilson 1972 and Josephs 1975, which assume an SVO order for Palauan. Georgopoulos (1991:32–41) and Josephs (1999:Chap. 15) provide clear and concise summaries of the debate and evidence in favor of the VOS analysis over the SVO analysis.
- ^ See Josephs 1990 for a more comprehensive list of words and phrases.
- ^ Palauan Language Online tekinged.com
References
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External links
[編集]
- “Online Palauan-English Dictionary”. 1 November 2014閲覧。
- “A Palauan Linguistic Bibliography”. 30 March 2008閲覧。
- “Airai, Palau: Language”. 12 October 2007閲覧。
- “République de Belau” (French). 20 June 2007閲覧。
- “PREL - Pacific Area Language Materials: Palauan”. 9 February 2008閲覧。
- “Japanese and Other Loanwords in Palauan”. 3 February 2008閲覧。
- Robert Blust's fieldnotes for Palauan are archived at Kaipuleohone