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利用者:赤の旋律/下書き/Language Movement

User:赤の旋律/Language Movement

Procession march held on 21 February 1952 in Dhaka
1952年2月21にダッカで行われた行進
The Language Movement (ベンガル語: ভাষা আন্দোলন Bhasha Andolôn) was a political movement in former East Bengal (today Bangladesh) advocating the recognition of the Bengali language as an official language of the then-Dominion of Pakistan in order to allow its use in government affairs, the continuation of its use as a medium of education, its use in media, currency and stamps, and to maintain its writing in the Bengali script.
言語の行進 (ベンガル語: ভাষা আন্দোলন Bhasha Andolôn)は旧東ベンガル(今日のバングラデシュ)で起こった政治運動である。政府の業務での使用、教育の手段としての使用の継続、メディアや通貨、切手での使用を可能とし、ベンガル文字での記述を維持できるよう、ベンガル語をパキスタンの公用語と認めるように主張していた。
When the Dominion of Pakistan was formed by the partition of India in 1947, it was composed of various ethnic and linguistic groups, with the geographically non-contiguous East Bengal province (that was renamed in 1956 as East Pakistan) having a mainly Bengali population. In 1948, the Government of the Dominion of Pakistan ordained Urdu as the sole national language, sparking extensive protests among the Bengali-speaking majority of East Bengal. Facing rising sectarian tensions and mass discontent with the new law, the government outlawed public meetings and rallies. The students of the University of Dhaka and other political activists defied the law and organised a protest on 21 February 1952. The movement reached its climax when police killed student demonstrators on that day. The deaths provoked widespread civil unrest. After years of conflict, the central government relented and granted official status to the Bengali language in 1956. In 1999, UNESCO declared 21 February as International Mother Language Day,[1] in tribute to the Language Movement and the ethno-linguistic rights of people around the world.
1947年にインドから分離独立して成立したとき、パキスタンは様々な民族的、言語的グループから成っており、地理的にも隔絶した東ベンガル州(1956年に東パキスタンと改名)は主にベンガル人から構成されていた。1948年にはパキスタン政府はウルドゥー語を単一の国語と定め、東ベンガルの大勢をなしたベンガル語話者の広範囲に渡る抗議を引き起こした。分離主義的緊張と新しい法への大きな不満に直面した政府は、市民会議と集会を非合法化した。ダッカ大学の生徒とその他の活動家は法を否定し、1952年2月21日に抗議を組織した。この日学生のデモ参加者が警察によって殺害されるおと、運動は最高潮に達した。市民の不安が広がった。数年にわたる争いののち、1956年に中央政府は軟化し、ベンガル語に公的な地位を与えた。言語の運動と世界中の人々の民族的言語の権利に敬意を表して、1999年にはユネスコは2月21日を世界母語日に定め[2]た。
The Language Movement catalysed the assertion of Bengali national identity in East Bengal and later East Pakistan, and became a forerunner to Bengali nationalist movements, including the 6-Point Movement and subsequently the Bangladesh Liberation War and Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. In Bangladesh, 21 February is observed as Language Movement Day, a national holiday. The Shaheed Minar monument was constructed near Dhaka Medical College in memory of the movement and its victims.
言語の運動は東ベンガル、のちの東パキスタンにおけるベンガル民族主義を加速させ、6点運動や続くバングラデシュ独立戦争、インド・パキスタン戦争などのベンガル民族主義運動の魁となった。バングラデシュでは2月21日は言語の運動の日として祝日になっている。運動とその犠牲者を記憶するため、Shaheed Minar記念碑がダッカ医科大学の近くに建てられている。

背景

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The present nations of Pakistan and Bangladesh were part of undivided India during the British colonial rule. From the mid-19th century, the Urdu language had been promoted as the lingua franca of Indian Muslims by political and religious leaders, such as Sir Khwaja Salimullah, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk and Maulvi Abdul Haq.[3][4] Urdu is an Indo-Aryan language of the Indo-Iranian branch, belonging to the Indo-European family of languages. It developed under Persian, Arabic and Turkic influence on apabhramshas (last linguistic stage of the medieval Indian Aryan language Pali-Prakrit)[5] in South Asia during the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire.[6] With its Perso-Arabic script, the language was considered a vital element of the Islamic culture for Indian Muslims; Hindi and the Devanagari script were seen as fundamentals of Hindu culture.[3]
現在のパキスタンとバングラデシュの2国はイギリス統治下ではインドの一部であった。19世紀なかばから、ウルドゥー語がインドのムスリムのリンガフランカとして、Sir Khwaja Salimullah、サイイド・アフマド・ハーン、Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk and Maulvi Abdul Haqなどの政治、宗教指導者から推奨されていた。[3][4] ウルドゥー語は印欧語族のインド・イラン語派、インド・アーリア語である。ペルシア語、アラビア語、トルコ語の影響を、デリースルタン朝とムガル帝国の間に南アジアで、アパブランシャ(中世インド・アーリア語プラークリットの最後期の形態)[7] に受けた。ナスタアリーク体と合わせて、ウルドゥー語はインドのムスリムにとっては、イスラム文化の重要な要素と考えられていた。ヒンドゥー語とデーヴァナーガリーはヒンドゥー文化の基盤として見られていた。[3]
While the use of Urdu grew common with Muslims in northern India, the Muslims of Bengal (a province in the eastern part of British Indian sub-continent) primarily used the Bengali language. Bengali is an Eastern Indo-Aryan language that arose from the eastern Middle Indic languages around 1000 CE[8] and developed considerably during the Bengal Renaissance. As early as the late 19th century, social activists such as the Muslim feminist Roquia Sakhawat Hussain were choosing to write in Bengali to reach out to the people and develop it as a modern literary language. Supporters of Bengali opposed Urdu even before the partition of India, when delegates from Bengal rejected the idea of making Urdu the lingua franca of Muslim India in the 1937 Lucknow session of the Muslim League. The Muslim League was a British Indian political party that became the driving force behind the creation of Pakistan as a Muslim state separate from British India.[9]
ウルドゥー語の使用は北インドのムスリムの間では普通になったが、ベンガル(インド亜大陸の東にある州)のムスリムは主にベンガル語を使用していた。ベンガル語は中期インド・アーリア語から紀元前1000年ごろ[8]に派生した東部インド・アーリア語で、ベンガルルネサンスの間に大きく発達した。19世紀後期頃には、ムスリムのフェミニストベーグム・ロキヤのような社会運動家が、人々とつながるためにベンガル語で書くことを選択しており、現代的な文学語として発達させた。ベンガル語の支持者は、インド分離以前からウルドゥー語に反発していた。インド分離の際、1937年の全インド・ムスリム連盟のラクナウの会合で、ベンガルの代表者はウルドゥー語をムスリムインドの共通語にすることを拒否した。ムスリム連盟は英領インドからパキスタンがムスリム国家として分離したときの原動力となった英領インドの政党である。[9]

初期の段階

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Britain's holdings on the Indian subcontinent were granted independence in 1947 and 1948, becoming four new independent states: the Dominion of India, the Union of Burma (now Myanmar), Dominion of Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), and the Dominion of Pakistan (including East Bengal, from 1956 East Pakistan, 1971-today Bangladesh).
インド亜大陸の英領は1947年と1948年に独立し、4つの新独立国家となった。インド、ブルマ、セイロン、パキスタン（1971年にバングラデシュが独立）
After the partition of India in 1947, Bengali-speaking people in East Bengal, the non-contiguous eastern part of the Dominion of Pakistan, made up 44 million of the newly formed Dominion of Pakistan's 69 million people.[10] The Dominion of Pakistan's government, civil services, and military, however, were dominated by personnel from the western wing of the Dominion of Pakistan.[11] In 1947, a key resolution at a national education summit in Karachi advocated Urdu as the sole state language, and its exclusive use in the media and in schools.[12][要文献特定詳細情報][13][要文献特定詳細情報] Opposition and protests immediately arose. Students from Dhaka rallied under the leadership of Abul Kashem, the secretary of Tamaddun Majlish, a Bengali Islamic cultural organisation. The meeting stipulated Bengali as an official language of the Dominion of Pakistan and as a medium of education in East Bengal.[14] However, the Pakistan Public Service Commission removed Bengali from the list of approved subjects, as well as from currency notes and stamps. The central education minister Fazlur Rahman made extensive preparations to make Urdu the only state language of the Dominion of Pakistan.[15] Public outrage spread, and many Bengali students met on the University of Dhaka campus on 8 December 1947 to formally demand that Bengali be made an official language. To promote their cause, Bengali students organised processions and rallies in Dhaka.[10]
1947年のインド分離以降、パキスタンの飛び地である東ベンガルのベンガル語話者は、パキスタンの人口6900万人のうち4400万人を占めていた[10]。しかしパキスタンの政府、公務員、軍は西パキスタン出身者が優位を占めていた[11] 。1947年にカラチの国家教育サミットでウルドゥー語を国家の単一の言語として定め、メディアや教育機関において排他的に使用することを主張する決議が出されると[16][要文献特定詳細情報][17][要文献特定詳細情報]、反対や抗議がたちまち巻き起こった。ダッカの学生はAbul Kashemの指導の下、集会を行った。集会では東ベンガルにおいてベンガル語を公用語と認め、教育の手段として用いることが規定された[14]。しかし、Pakistan Civil Service Commisionはベンガル語を紙幣や切手から取り除き、許容されるリストから除外した。中央教育相Fazlur Rahmanはウルドゥー語を唯一の公用語とするため広範囲な準備をおこなった[18] 。民衆の怒りは広がり、多くのベンガル人学生が1947年12月8日ダッカ大学のキャンパスに集まり、ベンガル語を公用語とするよう公的に要求した。その主張を広めるため、ベンガル人学生たちはダッカで行進と集会を行った。[10]
Leading Bengali scholars argued why Urdu should not be the only state language. The writer Abul Mansur Ahmed said if Urdu became the state language, the educated society of East Bengal would become 'illiterate' and 'ineligible' for government positions.[19] The first Rastrabhasa Sangram Parishad (National Language Action Committee), an organisation in favour of Bengali as a state language was formed towards the end of December 1947. Professor Nurul Huq Bhuiyan of the Tamaddun Majlish convened the committee.[10][20] Later, Parliament member Shamsul Huq convened a new committee to push for Bengali as a state language. Assembly member Dhirendranath Datta proposed legislation in the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan to allow members to speak in Bengali and authorise its use for official purposes.[10] Datta's proposal was supported by legislators Prem Hari Burman, Bhupendra Kumar Datta and Sris Chandra Chattaopadhyaya of East Bengal, as well as the people from the region.[10] Prime minister Liaquat Ali Khan and the Muslim League denounced the proposal as an attempt to divide the Pakistani people, thus the legislation was defeated.[10][21]
主要なベンガル人学者たちはなぜウルドゥー語を単一の国語とするべきでないかを主張した。作家Abul Mansur Ahmedはウルドゥー語が国語となれば、東ベンガルの教育を受けた社会は、「文盲」となり、政府の役職に「ふさわしくな」くなると述べた[19]。最初のRastrabhasa Sangram Parishad(国家言語運動委員会）、ベンガル語の国語認定を求める組織、が1947年12月の終わり頃作られた。Tamaddun MajlishのNurul Huq Bhuiyan教授が委員会を招集した[10][20]。後にShamsul Huq議員がベンガル語を国語に押し上げる新たな委員会を招集した。招集されたメンバーDhirendranath Dattaはパキスタン議会において、ベンガル語で話し、公的な目的のための使用を許可する立法を提案した[10] Datta's proposal was supported by legislators Prem Hari Burman, Bhupendra Kumar Datta and Sris Chandra Chattaopadhyaya of East Bengal, as well as the people from the region.[10] Prime minister Liaquat Ali Khan and the Muslim League denounced the proposal as an attempt to divide the Pakistani people, thus the legislation was defeated.[10][21]。

1948年の扇動

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Muhammad Ali Jinnah on 21 March 1948 told at a public meeting that State language of Pakistan is going to be Urdu and no other language.[22]
ムハンマド・アリー・ジンナーは1948年3月21日に集会にて「パキスタンの公用語はウルドゥー語のみとなるだろう」と述べた[23]。
Students of the University of Dhaka and other colleges of the city organised a general strike on 11 March 1948 to protest the omission of Bengali language from official use, including coins, stamps and recruitment tests for the navy. The movement restated the demand that Bengali be declared an official language of the Dominion of Pakistan. Political leaders such as Shamsul Huq, Shawkat Ali, Kazi Golam Mahboob, Oli Ahad, Abdul Wahed and others were arrested during the rallies. Rally leader Mohammad Toaha was hospitalised after attempting to snatch a rifle from a police officer. Student leaders, including Abdul Matin and Abdul Malek Ukil took part in the procession.[10]
ダッカ大学と他の大学の学生は、硬貨、切手、海軍の雇用試験などの公的使用からベンガル語が除外されるのに抗議するため、1948年3月11日にゼネストを組織した。運動はベンガル語がパキスタンの公用語と宣言されることを再び求めた。Shamsul Huq、Shawkat Ali、Kazi Golam Mahboob、Oli Ahad、Abdul Wahedといった政治的指導者たちは行進の最中に逮捕された。行進の指導者Mohammad Toahaは警官からライフルを奪おうとして病院送りにされた。Abdul MatinとAbdul Malek Ukilを含む学生の指導者たちも行列に参加していた[10]。
In the afternoon of 11 March, a meeting was held to protest police brutality and arrests. A group of students marching towards the chief minister Khawaja Nazimuddin's house was stopped in front of the Dhaka High Court. The rally changed its direction and moved in the direction of the Secretariat building. Police attacked the procession injuring several students and leaders, including A. K. Fazlul Huq.[24] Continuing strikes were observed the following four days. Under such circumstances, the chief minister Nazimuddin signed an accord with the student leaders agreeing to some terms and conditions, without complying to the demand that Bengali be made a state language.[10]
3月11日の午後、警察の横暴と逮捕に講義する集会が開かれた。首相ハージャー・ナジームッディーンの家へ向かって行進していた学生の一群は、ダッカ高等法院の前で止めさせられた。行進は向きを変え、Secretariat buildingの方向へ移動した。警察は行進を攻撃し、学生とA. K. Fazlul Huqを始めとする指導者達に怪我人を出した[24]。続く4日間ストライキは継続された。このような状況下でナジームッディーン首相は、学生指導者たちと一定の規約と条件に同意したが、ベンガル語を公用語とする要求は拒否した[10]。
In the height of civic unrest, Governor-General of Pakistan Muhammad Ali Jinnah arrived in Dhaka on 19 March 1948. On 21 March, at a civic reception at Racecourse Ground, he claimed that the language issue was designed by a "fifth column" to divide Pakistani Muslims.[25][26][27][28][要文献特定詳細情報][29] Jinnah further declared that "Urdu, and only Urdu" embodied the spirit of Muslim nations and would remain as the state language,[10][27][30][31] labelling those who disagreed with his views as "Enemies of Pakistan". Jinnah delivered a similar speech at Curzon Hall of the University of Dhaka on 24 March.[11] At both meetings, Jinnah was interrupted by large segments of the audience. He later called a meeting of a state language committee of action, and overruled the contract that was signed by Khawaja Nazimuddin with the student leaders.[24] Before Jinnah left Dhaka on 28 March, he delivered a speech on radio reasserting his "Urdu-only" policy.[32]
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Shortly thereafter, the East Bengal Language Committee, presided by Maulana Akram Khan, was formed by the East Bengal government to prepare a report on the language problem.[33] The Committee completed its report on 6 December 1950, but it was not published until 1958. The government suggested that Bengali be written in Arabic script, as a potential solution to the language conflict.[34][要文献特定詳細情報]
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1952年

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Procession march held on 4 February 1952 at Nawabpur Road, Dhaka.

The Urdu-Bengali controversy was reignited when Jinnah's successor, governor-general Khawaja Nazimuddin, staunchly defended the "Urdu-only" policy in a speech on 27 January 1952.[24] On 31 January, the Shorbodolio Kendrio Rashtrobhasha Kormi Porishod (All-Party Central Language Action Committee) was formed in a meeting at the Bar Library Hall of the University of Dhaka, chaired by Maulana Bhashani.[10][35] The central government's proposal of writing the Bengali language in Arabic script was vehemently opposed at the meeting. The action committee called for an all out protest on 21 February, including strikes and rallies.[24] In an attempt to prevent the demonstration, the government imposed Section 144 in Dhaka, thereby banning any gathering.[10]

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2月21日

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ファイル:Meeting at Amtala on Ekushey February.JPG
Meeting on the University of Dhaka premises on 21 February 1952

At nine o'clock in the morning, students began gathering on the University of Dhaka premises in defiance of Section 144. The university vice-chancellor and other officials were present as armed police surrounded the campus. By a quarter past eleven, students gathered at the university gate and attempted to break the police line. Police fired tear gas shells towards the gate to warn the students.[10] A section of students ran into the Dhaka Medical College while others rallied towards the university premises cordoned by the police. The vice-chancellor asked police to stop firing and ordered the students to leave the area. However, the police arrested several students for violating section 144 as they attempted to leave. Enraged by the arrests, the students met around the East Bengal Legislative Assembly and blocked the legislators' way, asking them to present their insistence at the assembly. When a group of students sought to storm into the building, police opened fire and killed a number of students, including Abdus Salam, Rafiq Uddin Ahmed, Abul Barkat and Abdul Jabbar.[10][36] As the news of the killings spread, disorder erupted across the city. Shops, offices and public transport were shut down and a general strike began.[30] At the assembly, six legislators including Manoranjan Dhar, Boshontokumar Das, Shamsuddin Ahmed and Dhirendranath Datta requested that chief minister Nurul Amin visit wounded students in hospital and that the assembly be adjourned as a sign of mourning.[37] This motion was supported by some treasury bench members including Maulana Abdur Rashid Tarkabagish, Shorfuddin Ahmed, Shamsuddin Ahmed Khondokar and Mosihuddin Ahmed.[37] However, Nurul Amin refused the requests.[10][37]

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2月22日

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Disorder spread across the province as large processions ignored section 144 and condemned the actions of the police.[24] More than 30,000 people congregated at Curzon Hall in Dhaka. During the continued protests, police actions led to the death of four more people. This prompted officers and clerks from different organisations, including colleges, banks and the radio station, to boycott offices and join the procession.[30] Protesters burned the offices of two leading pro-government news agencies, the Jubilee Press and the Morning News.[38] Police fired on a major janaza, or mourning rally, as it was passing through Nawabpur Road. The shooting killed several people including activist Sofiur Rahman and a nine-year-old boy named Ohiullah.[10][39]
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続く混乱

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22 February rally after janaja at Dhaka Medical College on the University Dhaka road, Dhaka.

Through the night of 23 February, students of Dhaka Medical College worked on the construction of a Shaheed Smritistombho, or Monument of Martyrs. Completed at dawn on 24 February, the monument had a handwritten note attached to it with the words "Shaheed Smritistombho".[40][要文献特定詳細情報] Inaugurated by the father of the slain activist Sofiur Rahman, the monument was destroyed on 26 February by police.[41][要文献特定詳細情報] On 25 February, industrial workers in the town of Narayanganj observed a general strike.[42] A protest followed on 29 February whose participants faced severe police beating.[43]

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The government censored news reports and withheld exact casualty figures during the protests. Most pro-government media held Hindus and communists responsible for encouraging the disorder and student unrest.[44] The families of Abul Barkat and Rafiq Uddin Ahmed tried to charge the police with murder, but the charges were dismissed by the police. On 8 April government report on the incidents failed to show any particular justification for police firings on the students.[45] When the constituent assembly reconvened on 14 April, proceedings were stalled by members of the Muslim League when legislators from East Bengal sought to raise the language issue.[46][要文献特定詳細情報]
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西パキスタンでの反応

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Although the Language Movement is considered to have laid the foundations for ethnic nationalism in many of the Bengalis of East Bengal and later East Pakistan, it also heightened the cultural animosity between the authorities of the two wings of Pakistan.[4][27][47] In the western wing of the Dominion of Pakistan, the movement was seen as a sectional uprising against Pakistani national interests.[48] The rejection of the "Urdu-only" policy was seen as a contravention of the Perso-Arabic culture of Muslims and the founding ideology of Pakistan, the two-nation theory.[4] Some of the most powerful politicians from the western wing of Pakistan considered Urdu a product of Indian Islamic culture, but saw Bengali as a part of "Hinduized" Bengali culture.[11] Most stood by the "Urdu only" policy because they believed that only a single language, one that was not indigenous to Pakistan, should serve as the national language. This kind of thinking also provoked considerable opposition in the western wing, wherein there existed several linguistic groups.[11] As late as in 1967, military dictator Ayub Khan said, "East Bengal is ... still under considerable Hindu culture and influence."[11]
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The Awami Muslim League turned over to Bengali nationalism after the Movement, and shed the word "Muslim" from its name.[49] The Language Movement inspired similar discontent in the western wing of Pakistan and provided momentum to ethnic nationalist parties.[4] The political unrest in East Pakistan and rivalry between the central government and the United Front-led provincial government was one of the main factors culminating in the 1958 military coup by Ayub Khan.[30]
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1952年以降

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Foundation of the Shaheed Minar laid down in Dhaka by Abul Barkat's family members.

The Shorbodolio Kendrio Rashtrobhasha Kormi Porishod, with support from the Awami Muslim League, decided to commemorate 21 February as Shohid Dibosh (Martyrs' Day). On the first anniversary of the protests, people across East Bengal wore black badges in solidarity with the victims. Most offices, banks and educational institutions were closed to observe the occasion. Student groups made agreements with college and police officials to preserve law and order. More than 100,000 people assembled at a public meeting held in Armanitola in Dhaka, where community leaders called for the immediate release of Maulana Bhashani and other political prisoners.[10] However, West Pakistani politicians such as Fazlur Rahman aggravated sectional tensions by declaring that anyone who wanted Bengali to become an official language would be considered an "enemy of the state". Bengali students and civilians disobeyed the restrictions to celebrate the anniversary of the protests. Demonstrations broke out on the night of 21 February 1954 with various halls of the University of Dhaka raising black flags in mourning.[50]

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1954年の統一戦線

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Political tensions came to a head as elections to the provincial assembly of East Bengal were held in 1954. The ruling Muslim League denounced the opposition United Front coalition, which—led by A. K. Fazlul Huq and the Awami League—wanted greater provincial autonomy. Several United Front leaders and activists were arrested.[51] A meeting of parliament's Muslim League members, chaired by prime minister Muhammad Ali Bogra, resolved to give official recognition to Bengali. This decision was followed by a major wave of unrest as other ethnic groups sought recognition of other regional languages. Proponents of Urdu such as Maulvi Abdul Haq condemned any proposal to grant official status to Bengali. He led a rally of 100,000 people to protest against the Muslim League's decision.[52][要文献特定詳細情報][53] Consequently, the implementation failed and the United Front won a vast majority of seats in the legislative assembly, while the representation of the Muslim League was reduced to a historic low.[30][53]
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The United Front ministry ordered the creation of the Bangla Academy to promote, develop, and preserve Bengali language, literature, and heritage.[54] However, the United Front rule was temporary, as Governor General Ghulam Muhammad cancelled the government and started Governor's rule on 30 May 1954.[51] the United Front again formed the ministry on 6 June 1955 after the governor's regime ended. The Awami League did not participate in this ministry though.[55]
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Following the return of the United Front to power, the anniversary on 21 February 1956 was observed for the first time in a peaceful atmosphere. The Government supported a major project to construct a new Shaheed Minar. The session of the constituent assembly was stopped for five minutes to express condolence for the students slain in the police shootings. Major rallies were organised by Bengali leaders and all public offices and businesses remained closed.[55][56]
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憲法改正

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On 7 May 1954, the constituent assembly resolved, with the Muslim League's support, to grant official status to Bengali.[53] Bengali was recognised as the second official language of Pakistan on 29 February 1956, and article 214(1) of the constitution of Pakistan was reworded to "The state language of Pakistan shall be Urdu and Bengali."
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However, the military government formed by Ayub Khan made attempts to re-establish Urdu as the sole national language. On 6 January 1959, the military regime issued an official statement and reinstated the official stance of supporting the 1956 constitution's policy of two state languages.[57]
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アッサム地方

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Outside East Bengal, movement for equal status of Bengali also took place in the Indian state of Assam. On 19 May 1961, 11 Bengalis were killed in police firing in Silchar Railway Station, Assam, while demanding state recognition of Bengali language. Subsequently, Bengali was given co-official status in the three Bengali-majority districts of Assam.[58]
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バングラデシュの独立

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→詳細は「Bangladesh Liberation War」を参照

Although the question of official languages was settled by 1956, the military regime of Ayub Khan promoted the interests of West Pakistan at the expense of East Pakistan. Despite forming the majority of the national population, the East Pakistani population continued to be under-represented in the civil and military services, and received a minority of state funding and other government help. This was mainly due to lack of representative government in the fledgling state. Mainly due to regional economic imbalances sectional divisions grew, and support for the Bengali ethnic nationalist Awami League,[27] which invoked the 6-point movement for greater provincial autonomy. One demand was that East Pakistan be called Bangladesh (Land/Country of Bengal), which subsequently led to the Bangladesh Liberation War.[4][11]

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バングラデシュにおいて

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Shaheed Minar, or the Martyr's monument, located near Dhaka Medical College commemorates those who lost their life during the protests on 21 February 1952

The Language Movement had a major cultural impact on Bengali society. It has inspired the development and celebration of the Bengali language, literature and culture. 21 February, celebrated as Language Movement Day or Shohid Dibosh (Martyrs' Day), is a major national holiday in Bangladesh. A month-long event called the Ekushey Book Fair is held every year to commemorate the movement. Ekushey Padak, one of the highest civilian awards in Bangladesh, is awarded annually in memory of the sacrifices of the movement.[59] Songs such as Abdul Gaffar Choudhury's Ekusher Gaan, set to music by Shaheed Altaf Mahmud, as well as plays, works of art and poetry played a considerable role in rousing the people's emotions during the movement.[60] Since the events of February 1952, poems, songs, novels, plays, films, cartoons and paintings were created to capture the movement from varied point of views. Notable artistic depictions include the poems Bornomala, Amar Dukhini Bornomala and February 1969 by Shamsur Rahman, the film Jibon Theke Neya by Zahir Raihan, the stage play Kobor by Munier Chowdhury and the novels Ekushey February by Raihan and Artonaad by Shawkat Osman.[61]

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Two years after the first monument was destroyed by the police, a new Shaheed Minar (Monument of Martyrs) was constructed in 1954 to commemorate the protesters who lost their lives. Work on a larger monument designed by the architect Hamidur Rahman began in 1957 with the support of the United Front ministry. Hamidur Rahman's model consisted of a large complex in the yard of the Dhaka Medical College Hostel. The design included a half-circular column symbolizing a mother with her martyred sons standing at the dais in the center of the monument. Although the imposition of martial law in 1958 interrupted the work, the monument was completed and inaugurated on 21 February 1963 by Abul Barkat's mother, Hasina Begum. Pakistani forces demolished the monument during the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971, but the Bangladeshi government reconstructed it in 1973.[62] Ekushey Television, the first private terrestrial TV channel of Bangladesh was named after the Event of 21 February.
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世界

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Bangladesh officially sent a proposal to UNESCO to declare 21 February as International Mother Language Day. The proposal was supported unanimously at the 30th General Conference of UNESCO held on 17 November 1999.[63]
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関連項目

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参考文献

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  • Al Helal, B (2003). Bhasha Andoloner Itihas (History of the Language Movement). Agamee Prakashani, Dhaka. ISBN 984-401-523-5  （ベンガル語）
  • Umar, B (1979). Purbo-Banglar Bhasha Andolon O Totkalin Rajniti. Agamee Prakashani, Dhaka.  （ベンガル語）
  • Umar, Badruddin (2004). The Emergence of Bangladesh: Class Struggles in East Pakistan (1947–1958). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-579571-7 
  • Uddin, Sufia M. (2006). Constructing Bangladesh: Religion, Ethnicity, and Language in an Islamic Nation. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-3021-6 
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脚注

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  1. ^ Glassie, Henry and Mahmud, Feroz.2008.Living Traditions. Cultural Survey of Bangladesh Series-II. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. Dhaka. International Mother Language Day
  2. ^ Glassie, Henry and Mahmud, Feroz.2008.Living Traditions. Cultural Survey of Bangladesh Series-II. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. Dhaka. International Mother Language Day
  3. ^ a b c d Upadhyay, R (1 May 2003). “Urdu Controversy – is dividing the nation further”. Papers. South Asia Analysis Group. 2008年2月20日閲覧。
  4. ^ a b c d e f Rahman, Tariq (1997). “The Medium of Instruction Controversy in Pakistan”. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 18 (2): 145–154. doi:10.1080/01434639708666310. ISSN 0143-4632. 
  5. ^ Halder, Shashwati (2012). “Apabhrangsha”. In Islam, Sirajul; Jamal, Ahmed A.. Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Second ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Apabhrangsha 
  6. ^ “A Historical Perspective of Urdu”. National Council for Promotion of Urdu language. 11 June 2007時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2007年6月15日閲覧。
  7. ^ Halder, Shashwati (2012). “Apabhrangsha”. In Islam, Sirajul; Jamal, Ahmed A.. Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Second ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Apabhrangsha 
  8. ^ a b Bhattacharya, T (2001). “Bangla”. In Garry, J.; Rubino, C.. Encyclopedia of World's Languages: Past and Present (Facts About the World's Languages). New York: HW Wilson. ISBN 0-8242-0970-2 
  9. ^ a b Rahman, Tariq (February 1997). “The Urdu-English Controversy in Pakistan”. Modern Asian Studies (Cambridge University Press) 31 (1): 177–207. doi:10.1017/S0026749X00016978. ISSN 1469-8099. JSTOR 312861.  引用エラー: 無効な <ref> タグ; name "tariqcontrov"が異なる内容で複数回定義されています
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x Al Helal, Bashir (2012). “Language Movement”. In Islam, Sirajul; Jamal, Ahmed A.. Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Second ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Language_Movement 
  11. ^ a b c d e f g Oldenburg, Philip (August 1985). “"A Place Insufficiently Imagined": Language, Belief, and the Pakistan Crisis of 1971”. The Journal of Asian Studies (Association for Asian Studies) 44 (4): 711–733. doi:10.2307/2056443. ISSN 0021-9118. JSTOR 2056443. 
  12. ^ Morning News. (7 December 1947) 
  13. ^ (Bengali)The Azad (a daily newspaper) (Abul Kalam Shamsuddin, Dhaka). (11 December 1948) 
  14. ^ a b (Umar 1979, p. 35)
  15. ^ (Al Helal 2003, pp. 227–28)
  16. ^ Morning News. (7 December 1947) 
  17. ^ (Bengali)The Azad (a daily newspaper) (Abul Kalam Shamsuddin, Dhaka). (11 December 1948) 
  18. ^ (Al Helal 2003, pp. 227–28)
  19. ^ a b (Umar 1979, pp. 30–32)
  20. ^ a b (Bengali) Ekusher Shongkolon '80. Dhaka: Bangla Academy. (1980). pp. 102–103 
  21. ^ a b Rahman, Hasan Hafizur (1982). Bangladesher Swadhinotajuddher Dolilpotro. Ministry of Information, People's Republic of Bangladesh 
  22. ^ NATIONAL CONSOLIDATION
  23. ^ NATIONAL CONSOLIDATION
  24. ^ a b c d e f (Al Helal 2003, pp. 263–265)
  25. ^ Choudhury, G. W. (April 1972). “Bangladesh: Why It Happened”. International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs) 48 (2): 242–249. doi:10.2307/2613440. ISSN 0020-5850. JSTOR 2613440. 
  26. ^ (Umar 2004, p. 34)
  27. ^ a b c d (Uddin 2006, pp. 3–16, 120–124)
  28. ^ The Azad. (24 February 1948) 
  29. ^ R. Upadhyay (7 April 2007). “De-Pakistanisation of Bangladesh”. Bangladesh Monitor, South Asia Analysis Group. 11 June 2007時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2007年6月16日閲覧。
  30. ^ a b c d e James Heitzman; Robert Worden, eds (1989). “Pakistan Period (1947–71)”. Bangladesh: A Country Study. Government Printing Office, Country Studies US. ISBN 0-16-017720-0. http://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/14.htm 2007年6月16日閲覧。 
  31. ^ Sayeed, Khalid Bin (September 1954). “Federalism and Pakistan”. Far Eastern Survey (Institute of Pacific Relations) 23 (9): 139–143. doi:10.1525/as.1954.23.9.01p0920l. ISSN 0362-8949. JSTOR 3023818. 
  32. ^ (Umar 2004, p. 35)
  33. ^ Mandal, Ranita (24 June 2002). “Chapter 4 : Other Activities”. Muhammad Shahidullah & His Contribution To Bengali Linguistics. Central Institute of Indian Languages, Mysore, India. 2007年6月23日閲覧。
  34. ^ The Azad. (24 May 1950) 
  35. ^ (Umar 2004, p. 192–193)
  36. ^ “Dhaka Medical College Hostel Prangone Chatro Shomabesher Upor Policer Guliborshon. Bishwabidyalayer Tinjon Chatroshoho Char Bekti Nihoto O Shotero Bekti Ahoto” (Bengali). The Azad. (22 February 1952) 
  37. ^ a b c (Al Helal 2003, pp. 377–393)
  38. ^ “Banglake Pakistaner Onnotomo Rashtrabhasa Korar Jonno Purbobongo Babostha Porishoder Shoparesh. Shukrobar Shohorer Obosthar Aaro Obonoti: Shorkar Kortrik Shamorik Bahini Tolob. Police O Shenader Gulite Charjon Nihoto O Shotadhik Ahoto : Shatghontar Jonno Curfew Jari. Shohidder Smritir Proti Sroddha Gyaponarthay Shotosfurto Hartal Palan” (Bengali). The Azad. (23 February 1952) 
  39. ^ (Al Helal 2003, p. 483)
  40. ^ The Azad. (25 February 1952) 
  41. ^ The Daily Star. (27 February 1952) 
  42. ^ (Umar 2004, p. 218)
  43. ^ (Umar 1979, pp. 417–418)
  44. ^ (Al Helal 2003, pp. 515–523)
  45. ^ (Al Helal 2003, pp. 546–552)
  46. ^ The Azad. (20 March 1952) 
  47. ^ “Bangladesh History”. Discovery Bangladesh. 2007年6月21日閲覧。
  48. ^ Rahman, Tariq (September 1997). “Language and Ethnicity in Pakistan”. Asian Survey (University of California Press) 37 (9): 833–839. doi:10.1525/as.1997.37.9.01p02786. ISSN 0004-4687. JSTOR 2645700. 
  49. ^ Lintner, Bertil (January 2004). “Chapter 17: Religious Extremism and Nationalism in Bangladesh”. In eds Satu Limaye; Robert Wirsing; Mohan Malik (PDF). Religious Radicalism and Security in South Asia. Honolulu, Hawaii: Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies. p. 413. ISBN 0-9719416-6-1. http://www.apcss.org/Publications/Edited%20Volumes/ReligiousRadicalism/PagesfromReligiousRadicalismandSecurityinSouthAsiach17.pdf 2007年6月28日閲覧。 
  50. ^ (Al Helal 2003, pp. 604–609)
  51. ^ a b (Al Helal 2003, pp. 600–603)
  52. ^ The Azad. (22 April 1954) 
  53. ^ a b c “UF elections victory”. Chronicles of Pakistan. 2011年12月11日閲覧。
  54. ^ Al Helal, Bashir (2012). “Bangla Academy”. In Islam, Sirajul; Jamal, Ahmed A.. Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Second ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Bangla_Academy 
  55. ^ a b (Al Helal 2003, pp. 608–613)
  56. ^ “Gambhirjopurno Poribeshay Shaheed Dibosh Utjapon” (Bengali). Weekly Notun Khobor. (26 February 1956) 
  57. ^ Lambert, Richard D. (April 1959). “Factors in Bengali Regionalism in Pakistan”. Far Eastern Survey (Institute of Pacific Relations) 28 (4): 49–58. doi:10.1525/as.1959.28.4.01p1259x. ISSN 0362-8949. JSTOR 3024111. 
  58. ^ Sarkar, Gautam (20 May 2008). “Court route for language status”. The Telegraph (Calcutta). http://www.telegraphindia.com/1080520/jsp/jharkhand/story_9294570.jsp 
  59. ^ Khan, Sanjida (2012). “National Awards”. In Islam, Sirajul; Jamal, Ahmed A.. Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Second ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=National_Awards 
  60. ^ Aminzade, Ronald; Douglas McAdam; Charles Tilly (17 September 2001). “Emotions and Contentious Politics”. Silence and Voice in the Study of Contentious Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 42. ISBN 0-521-00155-2. https://books.google.com/?id=h8PNEOZRRt8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=bangladesh+language+movement 2007年6月24日閲覧。 
  61. ^ Islam, Rafiqul (2000) (Bengali). Amar Ekushey O Shaheed Minar. Dhaka: Poroma. pp. 62–85. ISBN 984-8245-39-1 
  62. ^ Imam, Jahanara (1986) (Bengali). Ekattorer Dingulee. Dhaka: Shondhani Prokashani. p. 44. ISBN 984-480-000-5 
  63. ^ “International Mother Language Day – Background and Adoption of the Resolution”. Government of Bangladesh. 20 May 2007時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2007年6月21日閲覧。


さらに知りたい人へ

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ウィキメディア・コモンズには、赤の旋律/下書き/Language Movementに関連するカテゴリがあります。
  • Anwar S. Dil (2000). Bengali language movement to Bangladesh. Ferozsons. ISBN 978-969-0-01577-8 
  • Robert S. Stern (2000). Democracy and Dictatorship in South Asia: Dominant Classes and Political Outcomes in India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. Praeger Publishers. ISBN 978-0-275-97041-3 
  • Syed Manzoorul Islam (1994). Essays on Ekushey: The Language Movement 1952. Bangla Academy. ISBN 984-07-2968-3 
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外部リンク

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pending


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