利用者:社/仮作業用

ここに書いて有るのは、暇つぶしに適当に翻訳している物なので、必要に応じて持っていってください。--社 2007年9月25日 (火) 12:46 (UTC)

資料等

資料 http://dictionary.goo.ne.jp/

今後の作業予定

http://en-two.iwiki.icu/wiki/Eurozone 出来ればやりたい...（死んだな...）--社 2007年8月22日 (水) 16:08 (UTC)

ユーロ圏翻訳（？）

ユーロ圏(ユーロシステムまたはユーロゾーン)はユーロを採用したEU加盟国について説明します。欧州中央銀行は圏内における発券銀行で、全ての財政政策は欧州中央銀行によって行われます。

ユーロを通貨としてる国

正式加盟国

1998年に11の加盟国が条件を満たし、1999年の1月1日の全面的なユーロの運用の開始でユーロ圏が生まれました。ギリシャは2000年に参加資格を得て翌2001年に認められました。硬貨と紙幣は2002年に発表されました。スロベニアは2006年に資格を得て、翌2007年に認められました。スロベニアの加盟によりユーロ圏は13の国が加盟し圏内の人口は3億1600万以上になりました。オーストリアベルギーフィンランドフランス(太平洋の領土を除く) ドイツギリシアアイルランドイタリアルクセンブルクオランダポルトガルスロベニアスペイン

非加盟国でユーロを使う国

モナコサン・マリノバチカン

モナコ、サン・マリノ、バチカンはユーロを使用します、このくにはEU加盟国ではありませんが、ユーロに取り替えられた通貨を使用していた為にユーロを使用しています。これらの国は、EU加盟国と共に締結した協定によってユーロを使用しています。EUを代表して、それは欧州委員会と欧州理事会によって承認されました。この協定のおかげで、国家のシンボルがある状態で、モナコ、サン・マリノ、およびバチカン・シティ州は毎年、数量限定でユーロのコインを発行することができます。実際には、モナコはフランス、そして、バチカン市国とサン・マリノコインはイタリアによって造幣されます。サン・マリノ、モナコ、およびバチカン市国は現在ユーロ紙幣を発行していません、代わりに他の加盟国によって発行された紙幣を使用しています。

正式なユーロ協定のない非加盟国または領域

アンドラモンテネグロコソボ

アンドラは公式通貨が有りません。なので特定のユーロ硬貨を持ちません。以前は事実上の公式通貨としてフランとペセタを使用していました。しかしスペイン、フランスの二カ国と通貨協定を結んだことは有りません。ですが、EUとアンドラユーロ使用に関して交渉をしています。アンドラによれば、アンドラは2006年に自国でユーロ硬貨を鋳造しています。しかし2007年1月現在、2005年12月に銀行秘密により行き詰まり有りませんでした。 Likewise, Montenegro and Kosovo, which used to have the German mark as their de facto currency, also adopted the euro without having entered into any legal arrangements with the EU explicitly permitting them to do so. Kosovo uses the euro instead of the Serbian dinar, mainly for political reasons.[citation needed]

As of 1 December 2002, North Korea has replaced the U.S. dollar with the euro as its official currency for international trading. (Its internal currency, the won, is not convertible and thus cannot be used to purchase foreign goods.) The euro also enjoys popularity domestically, especially among resident foreigners. Cuba had announced the same in 1998[3] and Syria followed North Korea in 2006.[4]

Prior to the 2003 Invasion of Iraq, President Saddam Hussein announced that he intended to price Iraqi oil in euros, rather than US dollars, since the majority of Iraqi oil trade was with the EU, India and the People's Republic of China, not with the United States. This was reverted after the invasion.

Iceland's former foreign minister Valgerður Sverrisdóttir has said in an interview on 15 January 2007 that she seriously wishes to look into whether Iceland can join the Euro without being a member of the EU. She believes it is difficult to maintain an independent currency in a small economy on the open European market.[5]

[edit] Non-Eurozone EU countries

    Eurozone countries

    ERM II members

    EU member with currency pegged to the euro

    EU members with free-floating currencies

    non-EU members with free-floating currencies

    non-EU member with currency pegged to the euro

    States/territories outside the EU using the euroThe fourteen countries of the European Union that do not use the euro are: Denmark, Sweden, the United Kingdom, Bulgaria, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Romania and Slovakia.

Denmark and the United Kingdom obtained special derogations in the original Maastricht Treaty of the European Union. Both countries are not legally required to join the Eurozone unless their governments decide otherwise, either by parliamentary vote or referendum. Sweden did not, and is technically obliged to introduce the euro at some point in the future. However, the EU has made public that they have no intention to enforce this with regard to Sweden.

[edit] Inside ERM II As of 1 May 2004, the ten National Central Banks (NCBs) of the new member countries are party to the second European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM II). The following table shows the dates when each member state became a full participant in the ERM II mechanism.

Date of entry Country Notes 1 January 1999 Denmark The Danish krone entered the ERM II in 1999, when the euro was created. Since then, it floats against the euro in a ±2.25% range (1 EUR = 7.46038 DKK). 28 June 2004 Estonia The Estonian kroon had been pegged to the German mark since its re-introduction on 20 June 1992, and then to the euro (1 EUR = 15.6466 EEK).

Lithuania The Lithuanian litas was pegged to the US dollar until 2 February 2002, when it switched to a euro peg (1 EUR = 3.45280 LTL).

2 May 2005 Cyprus The Cypriot pound is pegged to the euro (1 EUR = 0.585274 CYP). Before admission into the eurozone, it floated against the euro in a ±15% range.

Latvia Latvia has a currency board arrangement whose anchor switched from the SDR to the euro on 1 January 2005. The current lats fluctuation margin is ±1% against the euro (1 EUR = 0.702804 LVL). 
Malta The Maltese lira is pegged to the euro (1 EUR = 0.429300 MTL). Before admission into the eurozone, it floated against the euro in a ±15% range.

28 November 2005 Slovakia The Slovak koruna now floats in a ±15% range against the euro (1 EUR = 35.4424 SKK,[6] was 38.4550 SKK before 17 March 2007).[7][8]

[edit] Cyprus Cyprus will adopt the euro on 1 January 2008.[9] A formal letter of application was submitted on 13 February 2007.[10] The final decision was taken by the EU finance ministers (Ecofin) on 10 July 2007 and the conversion rate was fixed at 0.585274 CYP. On May 16, 2007 the European Commission backed by the European Central Bank gave its green light for the introduction in January 2008.[11] The new currency will only be used in the government-controlled areas of the Republic: de facto state, the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, will keep on using the new Turkish lira.

[edit] Denmark A referendum on joining the Eurozone was held on 28 September 2000, resulting in a 53.2% vote against joining. In recent years, monthly polls[12] usually show that the majority now wants to join the Eurozone. In 2007, the Danish parliament is considering an assessment of Denmark's four exceptions from the Maastricht Treaty, that may be the first step to a referendum about some or all exceptions, and thus about adopting the euro.

It remains unclear if Greenland and the Faroe Islands will adopt the euro should Denmark choose to do so. Both are parts of the Kingdom of Denmark, but remain outside of the EU. The Faroe Islands currently uses Danish banknotes printed with Faroese motifs - the Faroese króna - and Greenland plans to introduce a similar system. Under the current system, both will continue to use Danish coins.

[edit] Estonia Estonia aims to adopt the euro on 1 January 2010. The kroon is pegged to the euro at a fixed rate, almost all shops show prices in euro and many accept it. Stamps also carry their euro face value.[13] Estonia originally aimed to adopt the euro on 1 January 2007, but this was postponed to 1 January 2008 (because Estonia did not meet the inflation criterion[14][15]) and then to the current date of 1 January 2010.[16] The date may slip further due to the expected inflation level.[17]

[edit] Latvia

This article appears to contradict the article Euro. Please see discussion on the linked talk page.

Latvia expects to adopt the euro between 2010 and 2012,[18] but originally aimed to adopt the euro on 1 January 2008. Due to problems with inflation, Latvia was forced to delay this date.[19]

[edit] Lithuania Lithuania originally set 1 January 2007 as the target date for joining the Euro, but their application was rejected by the European Commission because inflation was slightly higher than the permitted maximum.[20] In December 2006 the government approved a new convergence plan which, whilst reaffirming that the government wanted to join the Eurozone "as soon as possible", said that expected inflation increases in 2007-8 would mean the best period for joining the euro would be 2010 or after.[21] An opinion poll published in January 2007 showed that more Lithuanians opposed Euro adoption than supported it.[20]

[edit] Malta Malta will adopt the euro on 1 January 2008.[22] The aims were officially confirmed on 26 February 2007.[23] The EU finance ministers gave the green light on 10 July 2007 and the conversion rate was fixed at 0.429300 MTL. On May 16, 2007 the European Commission backed by the European Central Bank gave its green light for the introduction in January 2008.[11]

[edit] Slovakia Slovakia aims to adopt the euro on 1 January 2009.[24] The target date still holds although there are doubts about whether inflation and budget spending can be kept under control.[25]

[edit] Outside ERM II

[edit] Bulgaria Bulgaria planned to join the ERM II by the summer of 2007.[26] The entry has been delayed, probably until early 2008,[27] due to high inflation and current account deficit.[28]

The Bulgarian lev has been pegged to the euro since 1997 (between 1997 and 1999, before the euro came into existence, the lev was pegged to the German Mark) and the country has fulfilled the great majority of the EMU membership criteria. As a result of that, Bulgaria plans to adopt the euro on 1 January 2010,[29] although the date may be pushed forward since the country is not yet a member of ERM II.

[edit] Czech Republic Since joining the EU in 2004, the Czech Republic has adopted a fiscal and monetary policy that aims to align its macroeconomic conditions with the rest of the European Union. Currently, the most pressing issue is the large Czech fiscal deficit. Originally, the Czech Republic aimed for entry into the ERM II in 2008 or 2009, but the current government has officially dropped the 2010 target date, saying it will clearly not meet the economic criteria. 2012 has been suggested as the earliest changeover date.[30] [31]

[edit] Hungary Hungary originally planned to adopt the euro as its official currency on 1 January 2010, but that date has been abandoned because of the excessively high budget deficit. The current plan is to prepare a road map in mid-2008, without any target date.[32]

Realistically, it is difficult for Hungary to join the Eurozone in the foreseeable future until Hungarian public finances are better managed. Currently, the yearly budget deficit accounts for 6% of GDP, while public debt accounts for 69% of GDP.[33] Hungarian public debt is growing faster than Hungarian GDP.

[edit] Poland Although Poland is obliged to join the Eurozone as "part of the EU package", Polish president Lech Kaczyński has said he wants to organize a referendum on euro adoption. Strictly speaking, the Polish people already voted in favour of euro adoption when it approved the EU entry referendum, which included EMU entry, by a substantial majority (77%). EU commissioner Joaquin Almunia reminded Poland that it does not have an EMU opt-out clause like the UK and Denmark do. Opinion polls indicate that most Poles would like the euro to be the Polish currency.

In May 2006 the Polish government finally set its target date for euro introduction for 1 January 2012.

[edit] Romania The Romanian government has announced plans to join the Eurozone by 2014. The plan also stipulates to adhere to the ERM-II no sooner than 2012.[34] The president of the ECB said in June 2007, that "Romania has a lot of homework to do ... over a number of years" before joining ERM II.[35]

To simplify future adjustments to ATMs at the adoption of the euro, when the Romanian new leu was adopted in 2005 (at 10,000 old lei to 1 new leu) the new banknotes were issued to the same physical proportions as euro banknotes. The old leu notes were substantially wider than the new notes.

[edit] Sweden Sweden does not have any derogation by any protocol or treaty. Nevertheless, Sweden decided in 1997 not to join the Eurozone from the beginning, and has not made any effort to fulfil the required criteria for a stable exchange rate.

The first referendum held in Sweden regarding the adoption of the Euro was on 13 November 1994. The adoption of the euro is an integral part of its Treaty of Accession to the European Union. The vote was 53% in favour for joining the EU, and thus the Eurozone. However, the Swedish government had unilaterally declared in its proposition about EU accession (11 August 1994) that the Swedish parliament would decide if and when Sweden would adopt the common currency. The parliament decided in 1997 that Sweden would stay out from the beginning but possibly join later.

The consultative national referendum on 14 September 2003, resulted in a rejection of adopting the euro, with the following figures: Yes 42.0%, No 55.9%. Consequently, the decision has been postponed, as all political parties have pledged to uphold the results for the time being. According to regular polls by the national institute of statistics, public opinion remains negative.[36] In contrast, the Eurobarometer shows that support for the euro has increased from 41% in 2003 to 51% in 2006.[37] [38]

Former Prime Minister Göran Persson said in September 2004 that the Swedish membership application will definitely not happen before the 2010 General Election.[39][40] This view is shared by the current Reinfeldt government, that also keeps a low profile on the issue. The final introduction of the euro in Sweden will definitely not happen before 2015, and having in mind the negative poll results, it could be delayed very long time.

According to a research made by Företagarna, 60% of Swedish corporations think that staying out of the Eurozone will be harmful for them. The leader of the Swedish organisation of corporations, Anna-Stina Nordmark-Nilsson, demanded that Sweden join the Eurozone.[41]

The decision of Sweden not to adopt the euro in the near future is generally accepted within the European Union. Sweden joined the EU in 1995, and as such did not have the opportunity to gain an opt-out in the Maastricht treaty, which was already concluded in 1992. In 1995, however, the euro did not exist, neither physically (2002) nor legally (1999), and maybe because of this the European Commission has not taken any legal action about fulfilling this Swedish commitment so far. It has been warned however, that any move similar to that of Sweden in the new states will not be tolerated, as it has been with Sweden.

[edit] United Kingdom See also: Five economic tests The British government under Prime Minister Gordon Brown has committed itself to a triple-approval procedure before joining the Eurozone, involving approval by the Cabinet, Parliament, and the British electorate in a referendum. However, considering that the government is reluctant to ever organise any referendums, it is unrealistic that a referendum about the European currency will be organised in the near future.

Unlike other European countries, where the euro is seen mostly as an essential building block in a more politically integrated Europe, in the United Kingdom the possible benefits of Eurozone membership are seen mostly as principally economic, and an assessment of British membership based on five economic tests was published on 9 June 2003 by Gordon Brown, who at the time was Chancellor of the Exchequer.

Though maintaining the government's positive view on the euro, the report came out against membership because four out of the five tests were not passed.

Mr. Brown stated[42] in June 2003 that the best exchange rate for the UK to join the single currency would be around 73 pence per euro (a value which the pair had never reached). This rate has not been formalised as an official condition of entry.

Opinion polls have all shown a decisive majority of the British public to be against joining the Eurozone.[43] Some perceive loss of political and economic sovereignty; others are unconvinced of the case for change from their familiar currency. A referendum in the near future has been ruled out.

In fact, if the UK were to decide now (May 2007) they were going to join the Euro, it would be February 2010 before the currency was physically introduced. This is largely due to the prolonged amount of time the government would take to reach the decision.[citation needed]

[edit] Sterling zone If the United Kingdom were to join the Eurozone, this may affect those jurisdictions that also use the pound sterling, or which have a currency on a par with sterling, the sterling area.

The Crown dependencies use variants of the pound sterling, the Isle of Man pound, Jersey pound, Guernsey pound, and Alderney pound. They all share the same ISO 4217 code GBP.

Some other British Overseas Territories have their currencies fixed at par with sterling: the exchange rate is fixed so that £1 in the local currency equals £1 in sterling. They are Gibraltar, the Falkland Islands and Saint Helena.

The French overseas departments and territories were faced with a similar situation when France joined the Eurozone. Those which used the French franc themselves switched to using euros. Some overseas territories used the CFP franc. Whilst these had fixed exchange rates with the French franc, they were not at par - in fact for various historical reasons they were worth considerably less, at approximately 5 centimes. Both the CFA and CFP franc remain in existence, but are now linked to the euro at fixed rates instead. These fixed rates and free convertibility of these currencies are maintained at the expense of the French Treasury. A similar situation exists with the Comorian franc, which is also now fixed against the euro.

The sterling zone territories therefore have four options:

Enter the Eurozone as a non-EU member, either as a distinct national variant of the euro — just as Monaco and the Vatican have done. The EU has demanded that 'monetary agreements' be entered into by non-EU members who wish to issue their own euro coinage, and has pressured Andorra into not issuing their own coins until this is resolved. Such agreements, the EU has stated, must include adherence to EU banking and finance regulation. Use standard euro coins issued by the UK or other Eurozone countries. This may be perceived by some as losing an important symbol of independence. Maintain their existing currency, but peg at a fixed rate with the euro. However, maintaining a fixed rate against the attentions of currency speculators can be extremely expensive, as the UK found on Black Wednesday. However small countries and dependencies are seldom if ever object of speculation, and since the costs of defending their currencies would be insignificant to the UK, any attacks would likely fail anyway. Adopt a free-floating currency, or a currency fixed to another currency, as the Jersey government has hinted.[44] Gibraltar is in a separate position, as it is within the EU (as part of the UK's membership). If the UK were to adopt the euro it might not be possible to implement an opt-out for Gibraltar. It is unclear whether Gibraltar would be subject to its own referendum or would be included in a UK referendum, since Gibraltar votes as a part of the UK in European parliamentary elections.

[edit] Banknotes of the UK nations Currently, some private banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland are able to print and issue sterling banknotes of their own design. This is seen by many in these areas as an important part of their national identities.

Unless the UK Government were able to negotiate a suitable derogation from existing EU rules, it would not be possible for these private issues of banknotes to continue upon the UK joining the Eurozone. The European Central Bank only permits National Central Banks to issue banknotes. All euro banknotes are standardised across the Eurozone, without any national variation.

National variation is allowed in the design of euro coins, and it is possible that the Royal Mint could continue to include the symbols of the home nations on the British designed coinage, although this would have to be included in place of the Queen's portrait.

[edit] Euro adoption by the member states using other currencies See also: Convergence criteria The new member states should be adopting the euro as soon as appropriate guidelines are met. For these new member states, the single currency was "part of the package" of European Union membership – unlike the UK and Denmark, "opting out" is not permitted.

The dates the nine remaining states (Slovenia already joined) are expected to enter the third stage of the EMU and adopt the euro vary: 1 January 2008 for Cyprus and Malta; 2009 for Slovakia; early 2010 for Bulgaria, Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia; 2012 for Poland; 2014 for Romania. The Czech Republic was set to join on 1 January 2010, but can no longer do so due to economic conditions. A new date has not been set, but it will not probably be before 2012. Hungary has also abandoned its original target date 2010, without any new date.

On 16 May 2006 the European Commission recommended Slovenia to become the only new member of the Eurozone. This occurred on 1 January 2007.

Showing the ability to move towards full economic and monetary union is one requisite of "good membership". The ECB and European Commission produce reports every two years analyzing the economic and other conditions of non-Eurozone EU members, reporting on their suitability for joining the Eurozone. The first to include the 10 new members was published in October 2004.[45] The German Bundesbank, arguably the most important national bank in the ESCB, is criticizing the bloc's rush to enlarge the single currency zone.

 Malta  Cyprus  Slovakia  Estonia  Lithuania  Bulgaria  Hungary

Target date for euro adoption 1 January 2008 1 January 2008[46] 1 January 2009 1 January 2010[47] 1 January 2010 1 January 2010 Not set ERM II entry 2 May 2005 2 May 2005 28 Nov 2005 28 June 2004 28 June 2004 Expected in early 2008[48] Co-ordinating institution Two Committees appointed on 13 June 2005: a Steering Committee and a Euro Changeover Committee reporting to it Joint coordination by the Minister of Finance and the Central Bank of Cyprus, created on 29 December 2004 Ministry of Finance The National Changeover Committee, created on 27 January 2005 Commission for the Coordination of the Adoption of the euro in Lithuania, created on 30 May 2005 Preparatory work is ongoing in the Ministry of Finance and Magyar Nemzeti Bank (Central Bank of Hungary) Approved National Changeover Plan [49] First draft approved on September 1, 2005[50] Report approved by the government on 21 June 2005. NCP will be approved in November 2005 First version approved by the government on 27 September 2005 Not yet approved Type of scenario Big-Bang Big-Bang Big-Bang Big-Bang Big-Bang Big-Bang with possible phase out features Dual circulation period 1 month 1 month 16 days 2 weeks 15 days 1 month Exchange of national currency Comm. banks: coins and notes for 6 months. Central bank: banknotes for 10 years and coins for 2 years. Comm. bank: banknotes until end 2009, coins until June 2009. Central bank: banknotes indefinitely, coins for 5 years Comm. banks at least 6 months, Central bank indefinitely Commercial banks 60 days, Central bank indefinitely. Dual display of prices from the day of fixing of conversion rate until 6 months after the adoption from the first day of the second month after fixing of conversion rate until 6 months after the adoption Compulsory: from one month after fixing of conversion rate till one year after euro adoption. Voluntary: for an additional 6 months 6 months before and after €-day 60 calendar days before until 60 days after €-day National mint No No Yes No Yes Yes Yes National side Approved Approved Approved Approved Approved Not yet decided Not yet decided Nr of different coin designs 3 3 3 1 3 Need for banknotes and coins 450 million coins (€147m) and 85 million banknotes (€1.7b) 150-200 million coins 118.3 million banknotes, 290 million coins Law adaptations Umbrella law and a second and a third group of laws under consideration Umbrella law approved on 15 March 2007 Umbrella law under consideration Draft law on the adoption of the euro is prepared Communication strategy In process Undertaken by the Central Bank's "Communication Committee for the adoption of the euro" established on 18 January 2005 Endorsed by the National Changeover Committee on 21 June 2005 Endorsed by the government on 27 September 2005

 Latvia  Czech Republic  Poland  Romania  Sweden  Denmark  United Kingdom

Target date for euro adoption Not before 2012[51] Not before 2012[30] 1 January 2012[citation needed] 1 January 2014[52] Not under consideration Not under consideration Not under consideration ERM II entry 2 May 2005 Not before 2012 Not under consideration 1 January 1999 Not under consideration Co-ordinating institution The Steering Committee for the preparation and coordination of the euro changeover was established on 18 July 2005 Inter-institutional working group MoF-NBP Approved National Changeover Plan Approved on 6 July 2005 Approved on 11 April 2007[53] Type of scenario Big-Bang with possible phase out features Big-Bang Dual circulation period 2 weeks ??? Exchange of national currency Central bank: indefinitely Dual display of prices October 2007-June 2008 5 months before adoption 12 months after adoption National mint No Yes Yes Yes National side Approved Competition under consideration Public survey under consideration Not yet decided Not yet decided Nr of different coin designs 4 Need for banknotes and coins 87 million banknotes and 300 million coins 230 million banknotes and 950 million coins Law adaptations Communication strategy

[edit] Non-EU currencies pegged to the euro Main article: Currencies related to the euro Cape Verde's currency was pegged to the Portuguese escudo, and now the euro. Bosnia and Herzegovina's currency, the convertible mark, was pegged to the German Mark (and now the euro). The CFA and Comorian francs, used in former French colonies, and the CFP franc, used in French Pacific Ocean territories, were pegged to the French franc, and now the euro.

[edit] People affected by the euro Category Population Countries and territories Official members 317 million Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, Slovenia, Spain Other European countries and territories using the euro 2.7 million Andorra, Kosovo, Montenegro, Monaco, San Marino, Vatican City EU countries with currencies pegged to the euro (or at a narrow margin) 27 million Bulgaria, Cyprus, Denmark, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Slovakia Other European countries with currencies pegged to the euro 4 million Bosnia and Herzegovina African countries using the CFA franc 110 million Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Niger, Republic of the Congo, Sénégal, Togo Pacific Island nations using the CFP franc 0.5 million French Polynesia, New Caledonia, Wallis and Futuna Other countries and territories with currencies pegged to the euro 35 million Cape Verde, Comoros, Morocco Total 496 million 44 countries and 5 areas.

[edit] Inflation mid 1999: 1% mid 2000: 2% mid 2001: 2.8% mid 2002: 1.9% mid 2003: 1.9% May 2004: 2.5% May 2005: 1.9%

[edit] Fiscal policies The primary means for fiscal coordination within the EU lies in the Broad Economic Policy Guidelines which are written for every member state, but with particular reference to the 13 current members of the Eurozone. These guidelines are not binding, but are intended to represent policy coordination among the EU member states, so as to take into account the linked structures of their economies.

For their mutual assurance and stability of the currency, members of the Eurozone have to respect the Stability and Growth Pact, which sets agreed limits on deficits and national debt, with associated sanctions for deviation. The Pact originally set a limit of 3% of GDP for the yearly deficit of all Eurozone member states; with fines for any state which exceeded this amount. In 2005, Portugal, Germany, and France had all exceeded this amount, but the Council of Ministers had not voted to fine those states. Subsequently, reforms were adopted to provide more flexibility and ensure that the deficit criteria took into account the economic conditions of the member states, and additional factors.

[edit] Notes ^ Agreements on monetary relations (Monaco, San Marino, the Vatican and Andorra). European Communities (2004-09-30). Retrieved on 2006-09-12. ^ Boldt, Hans H. and Sant Julià de Lòria (2006-11-15). Andorranische Euros nicht zu jedem Preis (German). Andorra-Intern. Retrieved on 2007-01-03. ^ Cuba to adopt Euro in foreign trade BBC News 08/11/98 ^ US row leads Syria to snub dollar BBC News 14/02/06 ^ Spongenberg, Helena. "Slovenia celebrates full entry into euro club", 2007-01-15. Retrieved on 2007-01-16. ^ Radoslav Tomek and Meera Louis. "Slovakia, EU Raise Koruna's Central Rate After Appreciation", Bloomberg, 2007-03-17. Retrieved on 2007-03-17. ^ "Slovak Koruna Included in the ERM II", National Bank of Slovakia, 2005-11-28. Retrieved on 2007-03-17. ^ European Commission. Exchange Rate Mechanism II (ERM II). Retrieved on 2007-03-17. ^ The European Commission hails approval of the adoption of the Euro in Cyprus and Malta ^ EUobserver Small EU states rush to join single currency ^ a b Cyprus and Malta set to join eurozone in 2008 ^ Dagbladet Børsen Meningsmålinger apr. 07 (Danish) ^ Estonian manor halls. Taagepera/361-16.08.06. Eesti Post. Retrieved on 2006-09-12. ^ Government: We must be technically prepared for the adoption of euro on 1 January 2008. Eesti Pank. Bank of Estonia (2006-04-27). Retrieved on 2006-09-12. ^ Estonia's National Changeover Plan. Eesti Pank. Bank of Estonia. Retrieved on 2006-09-12. ^ Non, nein, no: Europe turns negative on the euro, The Times, 2006-12-31, accessed on 2007-01-01 ^ Estonia raises inflation forecast, further dimming euro entry. Budapest Business Journal. Retrieved on 2007-04-30. ^ Latvia might adopt Euro between 2010 and 2012 - Minister, Forbes, 2006-12-04, accessed on 2007-01-01 ^ Inflation will delay euro adoption in Latvia: Standard & Poor's. EUbusiness Ltd (2006-03-08). Retrieved on 2006-09-12. ^ a b Lithuanians Divided on Euro Adoption, Angus Reid Global Monitor, 2007-01-02, accessed on 2007-01-11 ^ Adoption of the Euro in Lithuania, Bank of Lithuania, accessed on 2007-01-11 ^ The European Commission hails approval of the adoption of the Euro in Cyprus and Malta ^ ^ ^ Doubts resurface about Slovakia's euro entry – analysis (English). Budapest Business Journal (2007-06-27). Retrieved on 2007-07-21. ^ "България започва тестове за въвеждане на еврото преди лятото", Money.bg, 2007-01-26. Retrieved on 2007-02-24. (Bulgarian) ^ "Bulgaria: Bulgaria Reports 0,4% Deflation in June", Sofia News Agency, 2007-07-12. Retrieved on 2007-07-21. (English) ^ "ECB: Introductory statement with Q&A", ECB, 2007-06-06. Retrieved on 2007-07-21. (English) ^ "THE CONTRIBUTION OF THE BULGARIAN NATIONAL BANK TO THE EUROPEAN INTEGRATION PROCESS", Bulgarian National Bank, 2007-01-24. Retrieved on 2007-07-21. (English) ^ a b European Commission Report (PDF). Retrieved on 2006-09-12. Preliminary date. ^ Czech euro adoption distant goal three years after EU entry (English). Prague Daily Monitor (2007-04-27). Retrieved on 2007-04-27. ^ "Hungary's euro adoption hinges on economy overhaul" (English). Budapest Business Journal (2007-03-23). Retrieved on 2007-04-27. ^ https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/hu.html ^ "Guvernul a aprobat Programul de convergenţă" (The Government of Romania approves Convergence Plan) (Romanian). Press release of the Romanian Government (2007-01-24). Retrieved on 2007-01-25. ^ "ECB: Introductory statement with Q&A", ECB, 2007-06-06. Retrieved on 2007-07-21. (English) ^ EMU-/eurosympatier 1997-2007 (Swedish). SCB (2007-06-19). Retrieved on 2007-07-21. ^ Eurobarometer 60.1 (Swedish). European Commission (2004-02-19). Retrieved on 2007-08-20. ^ Eurobarometer 66 (Swedish). European Commission (2006-12-22). Retrieved on 2007-08-20. ^ Hallgren, Mats (2005-07-15). Nuder känner sig utanför efter Sveriges EMU-nej (Swedish). Svenska Dagbladet. Retrieved on 2006-09-12. ^ Kerpner, Joachim (2004-09-12). Allt fler säger NEJ! (Swedish). Aftonbladet Nya Medier. Retrieved on 2006-09-12. ^ STT (2007-07-10). Ruotsin yrittäjät haluavat mukaan euroon (Finnish). Talentum.com. Retrieved on 2007-07-10. ^ Britain not ready to join euro. Guardian Unlimited (2003-06-09). Retrieved on 2006-09-12. ^ Joining The Euro. Ipsos MORI (2006). Archived from the original on 2007-02-16. Retrieved on 2006-09-12. ^ What should the Island do in the wake of Jersey’s curve ball?, PDMS, 2003-09-01, accessed on 2007-01-07 ^ Convergence Report. European Central Bank (2006). Retrieved on 2006-09-12. ^ "Cyprus files formal application to join the Eurozone", Financial Mirror, 13/02/2007. Retrieved on 2007-02-13. ^ Non, nein, no: Europe turns negative on the euro, The Times, 2006-12-31, accessed on 2006-12-31 ^ "Bulgaria: Bulgaria Reports 0,4% Deflation in June", Sofia News Agency, 2007-07-12. Retrieved on 2007-07-21. (English) ^ The National Euro Changeover Committee. Retrieved on 2006-09-12. ^ Eurole üleminek (Estonian). Rahandusministeerium (2006-04-27). Retrieved on 2006-09-12. ^ No euro in Latvia before 2012: premier, EU Business, 2006-06-01, accessed on 2007-06-02 ^ Romania Plans to Adopt Euro in 2014. Retrieved on 2007-01-25. ^ http://www.eubusiness.com/news_live/1176300001.83

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Lesbian

Lesbian From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search This article is about same-sex desire and sexuality among women. For other uses, see Lesbian (disambiguation). A lesbian is a woman who is romantically and sexually attracted only to other women.[1][2] Women who are attracted to both women and men are more often referred to as bisexual. An individual's self-identification might not correspond with her behavior, and may be expressed with either, both, or neither of these words.

LGBT and Queer studies series

LGBT Portal Gender · Homosexuality · Bisexuality · Transgender LGBT history Timeline · Gay Liberation · Social movements · AIDS timeline Culture Community · Pride · Coming out · Gay slang · Gay village · Queer theory · Religion · Symbols · Queer · Questioning Law Marriage · Civil union · Adoption · Sodomy law · Military service · Hate crime · Laws by country Categories This box: view • talk • edit Sexual orientation Part of sexology Distinctions Asexual Autosexual Bisexual Heterosexual Homosexual Pansexual Zoosexual

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This box: view • talk • edit Contents [hide] 1 History 2 Public policy 2.1 Reproduction and parenting rights 3 Sexuality 4 Culture 5 Media depictions 5.1 Cinema 5.2 Mainstream broadcast media 5.3 Comics 5.4 Anime 5.5 Games 6 Feminism 6.1 Transwomen and trans-inclusion 7 See also 8 References 9 External links 9.1 Media depictions 9.2 Magazines

History The earliest known written references to same-sex love between women come from ancient Greece. Sappho (the eponym of "sapphism"), who lived on the island of Lesbos, wrote poems which apparently expressed her sexual attraction to other females but some ancient accounts also describe her as having had love affairs with men. Moreover, Maximus of Tyre wrote that Sappho's relationships with the girls in her school were platonic[citation needed]. Modern scholarship suggests a parallel between the ancient Greek constructs of love between men and boys and the friendships between Sappho and her students in which "both pedagogy and pederasty may have played a role."[3][4] Lesbian relationships have also been cited in ancient Sparta. Plutarch, writing about the Lacedaemonians, reports that "love was so esteemed among them that girls also became the erotic objects of noble women."[5] Accounts of lesbian relationships are also found in poetry and stories from ancient China, but are not documented with the detail given to male homosexuality. Research by anthropologist Liza Dalby, based mostly on erotic poems exchanged between women, has suggested lesbian relationships were commonplace and socially accepted in Japan during the Heian Period. During medieval times in Arabia there were reports of relations between harem residents, although these were sometimes suppressed. For example, Caliph Musa al-Hadi ordered the beheading of two girls who were surprised during lovemaking.[6] In Europe, the twelfth-century author Etienne de Fougères' treatise on women, Livre des manières (written circa A.D. 1170) derided lesbians, likening them to hens that act like roosters. This reflected a general tendency of European authorities, both religious and secular, to reject the notion that women could be properly sexual without men. [7]

Public policy In Western societies, explicit prohibitions on women's homosexual behavior have been markedly weaker than those on men's homosexual behavior.

In the United Kingdom, lesbianism has never been illegal. In contrast, sexual activity between males was not made legal in England and Wales until 1967. It is said that lesbianism was left out of the Criminal Law Amendment Act of 1885 because Queen Victoria did not believe sex between women was possible, but this story may be apocryphal.[8] A 1921 proposal, put forward by Frederick Macquisten MP to criminalize lesbianism was rejected by the House of Lords; during the debate, Lord Birkenhead, the then Lord Chancellor argued that 999 women out of a thousand had "never even heard a whisper of these practices."[9] In 1928, the lesbian novel The Well of Loneliness was banned for obscenity in a highly publicized trial, not for any explicit sexual content but because it made an argument for acceptance.[10] Meanwhile other, less political novels with lesbian themes continued to circulate freely.[11]

Jewish religious teachings condemn male homosexual behavior but say little about lesbian behavior. However, the approach in the modern State of Israel, with its largely secular Jewish majority, does not outlaw or persecute gay sexual orientation; marriage between gay couples is not sanctioned but common law status and official adoption of a gay person's child by his or her partner have been approved in precedent court rulings (after numerous high court appeals). There is also an annual Gay parade, usually held in Tel-Aviv; in 2006, the "World Pride" parade was scheduled to be held in Jerusalem.

Western-style homosexuality is rarely tolerated elsewhere in the Muslim world, with the possible exception of Turkey. It is punishable by imprisonment, lashings, or death in Saudi Arabia and Yemen. Though the law against lesbianism in Iran has reportedly been revoked or eased, prohibition of male homosexuality remains.

Reproduction and parenting rights See also: Parenting by same-sex couples Many lesbian couples seek to have children through adoption, but this is not legal in every country.

In some countries access to assisted birth technologies by lesbians has been the subject of debate. In Australia the High Court rejected a Roman Catholic Church move to ban access to in vitro fertilization (IVF) treatments for lesbian and single women. However, immediately after this High Court decision, Prime Minister John Howard amended legislation in order to prevent access to IVF for these groups, effectively overruling the High Court decision and enforcing the Roman Catholic position, which raised indignation from the gay and lesbian community as well as groups representing the rights of single women.

Sexuality

Gustave Courbet, SleepSexual activity between women is as diverse as sex between heterosexuals or gay men. Some women in same-sex relationships do not identify as lesbian, but as bisexual, queer, or another label. As with any interpersonal activity, sexual expression depends on the context of the relationship.

Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, In BedRecent cultural changes in western and a few other societies have enabled lesbians to express their sexuality more freely, which has resulted in new studies on the nature of female sexuality. Research undertaken by the U.S. Government's National Center for Health Research in 2002 was released in a 2005 report called 'Sexual Behavior and Selected Health Measures: Men and Women 15-44 Years of Age, United States, 2002'. The results indicated that among women aged 15-44, 4.4 percent reported having had a sexual experience with another woman during the previous 12 months. When women aged 15–44 years of age were asked, "Have you ever had any sexual experience of any kind with another female?" 11 percent answered "yes".

There is a growing body of research and writing on lesbian sexuality, which has brought some debate about the control women have over their sexual lives, the fluidity of woman-to-woman sexuality, the redefinition of female sexual pleasure and the debunking of negative sexual stereotypes. One example of the latter is lesbian bed death, a term invented by sex researcher Pepper Schwartz to describe the supposedly inevitable diminution of sexual passion in long term lesbian relationships; this notion is rejected by many lesbians, who point out that passion tends to diminish in almost any relationship and many lesbian couples report happy and satisfying sex lives.

Culture

The Black Triangle was used to identify "socially unacceptable" women in concentration camps by the Nazis. Lesbians were included in this classification. Since then lesbians have appropriated the black triangle as a symbol of defiance against repression and discrimination in the same way that the pink triangle has been similarly appropriated by the LGBT community as a whole.Throughout history hundreds of lesbians have been well-known figures in the arts and culture.

Before the influence of European sexology emerged at the turn of the Twentieth Century, in cultural terms female homosexuality remained almost invisible as compared to male homosexuality, which was subject to the law and thus more regulated and reported by the press. However with the publication of works by sexologists like Karl Heinrich Ulrichs, Richard von Krafft-Ebing, Havelock Ellis, Edward Carpenter, and Magnus Hirschfeld, the concept of active female homosexuality became better known.

As female homosexuality became more visible it was described as a medical condition. In Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (1905), Sigmund Freud referred to female homosexuality as inversion or inverts and characterised female inverts as possessing male characteristics. Freud drew on the "third sex" ideas popularized by Magnus Hirschfeld and others. While Freud admitted he had not personally studied any such "aberrant" patients he placed a strong emphasis on psychological rather than biological causes. Freud's writings did not become well-known in English-speaking countries until the late 1920s.

This combination of sexology and psychoanalysis eventually had a lasting impact on the general tone of most lesbian cultural productions. A notable example is the 1928 novel The Well of Loneliness by Radclyffe Hall, in which these sexologists are mentioned along with the term invert, which later fell out of favour in common usage. Freud's interpretation of lesbian behavior has since been rejected by most psychiatrists and scholars, although recent biological research has provided findings that may bolster a Hirschfeld-ian "third sex" interpretation of same-sex attraction.

During the twentieth century lesbians such as Gertrude Stein and Barbara Hammer were noted in the US avant-garde art movements, along with figures such as Leontine Sagan in German pre-war cinema. Since the 1890s the underground classic The Songs of Bilitis has been influential on lesbian culture. This book provided a name for the first campaigning and cultural organization in the United States, the Daughters of Bilitis.

During the 1950s and 1960s lesbian pulp fiction was published in the US and UK, often under "coded" titles such as Odd Girl Out, The Evil Friendship by Vin Packer and the The Beebo Brinker Chronicles by Ann Bannon. British school stories also provided a haven for "coded" and sometimes outright lesbian fiction.

During the 1970s the second wave of feminist era lesbian novels became more politically oriented. Works often carried the explicit ideological messages of separatist feminism and the trend carried over to other lesbian arts. Rita Mae Brown's debut novel Rubyfruit Jungle was a milestone of this period. By the early 1990s lesbian culture was being influenced by a younger generation who had not taken part in the "Feminist Sex Wars" and this strongly informed post-feminist queer theory along with the new queer culture.

In 1972 the Berkeley, California lesbian journal Libera published a paper entitled Heterosexuality in Women: its Causes and Cure. Written in deadpan, academic prose, closely paralleling previous psychiatry-journal articles on homosexuality among women, this paper inverted prevailing assumptions about what is normal and deviant or pathological and was widely read by lesbian feminists.

Since the 1980s lesbians have been increasingly visible in mainstream cultural fields such as music (Melissa Etheridge, K.D. Lang and the Indigo Girls), television (Ellen DeGeneres, Rosie O'Donnell, and Portia de Rossi), sports (Martina Navrátilová and Billie Jean King) and in comic books (Alison Bechdel and Diane DiMassa). More recently lesbian eroticism has flowered in fine art photography and the writing of authors such as Pat Califia, Jeanette Winterson and Sarah Waters and Stella Duffy. There is an increasing body of lesbian films such as Desert Hearts, Go Fish, Loving Annabelle, Watermelon Woman, Oranges Are Not The Only Fruit, Everything Relative, and Better than Chocolate (see List of lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender-related films). Classic novels such as those by Jane Rule, Vin Packer, Ann Aldrich, and Ann Bannon have been reprinted. Moreover, prominent and controversial academic writers such as Camille Paglia and Germaine Greer also identify with lesbianism.

Media depictions Lesbians often attract media attention, particularly in relation to feminism, love and sexual relationships, marriage, and parenting.

Cinema See also: List of lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender-related films The first lesbian-themed feature film was Mädchen in Uniform (1931), based on a novel by Christa Winsloe and directed by Leontine Sagan, tracing the story of a schoolgirl called Manuela von Meinhardis and her passionate love for a teacher, Fräulein von Nordeck zur Nidden. It was written and mostly directed by women. The impact of the film in Germany's lesbian clubs was overshadowed, however, by the cult following for The Blue Angel (1930).

Until the early 1990s, any notion of lesbian love in a film almost always required audiences to infer the relationships. The lesbian aesthetic of Queen Christina (1933) with Greta Garbo has been widely noted, even though the film is not about lesbians. Alfred Hitchcock's Rebecca (1940), based on the novel by Daphne du Maurier, referred more or less overtly to lesbianism, but the two characters involved were not presented positively: Mrs. Danvers was portrayed as obsessed, neurotic and murderous, while the never-seen Rebecca was described as having been selfish, spiteful and doomed to die. All About Eve (1950) was originally written with the title character as a lesbian but this was very subtle in the final version, with the hint and message apparent to alert viewers.

Playwright Lillian Hellman's first play, The Children's Hour (1934) was produced on Broadway. Set in a private girls' boarding school, the headmistress and a teacher are the targets of a malicious whispering campaign of insinuation by a disgruntled schoolgirl. They soon face public accusations of having a lesbian relationship.[12] The play was nominated for a Pulitzer prize, banned in Boston, London, and Chicago[13] and had a record-breaking run of 691 consecutive performances in New York.[14] A 1961 screen adaptation starred Audrey Hepburn and Shirley MacLaine. The play's deep and pervasively dark themes and lesbian undertones have been widely noted.[15]

Mainstream films with openly lesbian content, sympathetic lesbian characters and lesbian leads began appearing during the 1990s. By 2000 some films portrayed characters exploring issues beyond their sexual orientation, reflecting a wider sense that lesbianism has to do with more than sexual desire. Notable mainstream theatrical releases included Bound (1996), Chasing Amy (1997), Kissing Jessica Stein (2001), Mulholland Drive, Monster, D.E.B.S. (2004 film), Rent (2005, based on the Jonathan Larson musical), My Summer of Love (2004) and Loving Annabelle (2006). There have also been many non-English language lesbian films such as Fire (India, 1996), Fucking Åmål (Sweden, 1998), Blue (Japan, 2002), and Blue Gate Crossing (Taiwan, 2004).

Mainstream broadcast media The 1980s television series L.A. Law included a lesbian relationship which stirred much more controversy than lesbian TV characters would a decade later. The 1989 BBC mini series Oranges Are Not The Only Fruit was based on lesbian writer Jeanette Winterson's novel of the same title. Russian pop-duo t.A.T.u were popular in Europe during the early 2000s, gaining wide attention and TV airplay for their pop videos because they were marketed as lesbians even though they weren't.

Many SciFi series have featured lesbian characters. An episode of Babylon 5 featured an implied lesbian relationship between characters Talia Winters and Commander Susan Ivanova. Star Trek: Deep Space 9 featured several episodes with elements of lesbianism and made it clear that in Star Trek's 24th century such relationships are accepted without a second thought.

Actress and comedian Ellen DeGeneres came out publicly as a lesbian in 1997 and her character on the sitcom Ellen did likewise soon after during its fourth season. This was the first American sitcom with a lesbian lead character. The coming-out episode won an Emmy Award but the series was cancelled after one more season. In 2000 the ABC Daytime Drama Series All My Children character Bianca Montgomery (Eden Riegel) was revealed to be lesbian. While many praised the character's prominent storyline, others criticised the almost perpetual trauma and Bianca's lack of a successful long-running relationship with another woman. In 2004's popular television show on Showtime, The L Word is focused on a group of lesbian friends living in L.A., and Ellen DeGeneres had a popular daytime talk show. In 2005 an episode of The Simpsons ("There's Something About Marrying") depicted Marge's sister Patty coming out as a lesbian. Also that year on Law & Order the final appearance of assistant district attorney Serena Southerlyn included the revelation she was a lesbian, although some viewers claimed there had been hints of this in previous episodes.

Notable lesbian characters and appearances in the mainstream media have included:

Kim Daniels in the UK TV series Sugar Rush Liz Cruz in Nip/Tuck Willow Rosenberg, Tara Maclay and Kennedy in Buffy the Vampire Slayer Lindsay Peterson and Melanie Marcus in Queer as Folk Maia Jeffries and Jay Copeland in Shortland Street Lana Crawford and Georgina Harris in Neighbours Amanda Donohoe (as C.J.Lamb) and Michelle Green (as Abbey Perkins) in LA Law Dr. Kerry Weaver and Sandy López in ER Dr. Kerry Weaver and Kim Legaspi in ER Helen Stewart and Nikki Wade in Bad Girls Paige Michalchuk and Alex Núñez in Degrassi:The Next Generation Dorothy's college friend Jean in The Golden Girls Alice Pieszecki, Dana Fairbanks, Bette Porter, Shane McCutcheon, Tina Kennard, Jodi Lerner, Helena Peabody, Phyllis Kroll, Jennifer Schecter, and several others in The L Word Anna Friel and Nicola Stephenson on the UK series Brookside Spencer Carlin and Ashley Davies in South of Nowhere Carol, Ross' ex-wife and her life partner Susan on Friends Sharon Stone and Ellen Degeneres in If These Walls Could Talk 2 Jennifer K. Buckmeyer in the made for TV special Coming Out Marissa Cooper and Alex Kelly on The OC Patty Bouvier, sister of Marge Simpson, on The Simpsons Naomi Julien, Della Alexander and Binnie Roberts in EastEnders Thelma Bates in Hex Jessica Sammler and Katie Singer on Once and Again Jasmine Thomas and Debbie Dingle, and Zoe Tate in Emmerdale Maggie Sawyer and Toby Raines (implied) in Superman: The Animated Series Beverly Harris, Nancy Bartlett and Jackie Harris in Roseanne Maxine Proctor (implied) in In Diana Jones Frankie Doyle, Angela Jeffries, Sharon Gilmore, Judy Bryant, Joan Ferguson, Audrey Forbes, Terri Malone in Prisoner: Cell Block H (TV series - 1979-1986) Serena Southerlyn on Law And Order Christina Ricci and Charlize Theron in Monster Xena and Gabrielle in Xena: Warrior Princess Penelope Cruz and Charlize Theron in "Head in the Clouds" Piper Perabo and Jessica Paré in "Lost and Delirious" the character Nia and Venus in My Baby's Daddy

Comics For more details on this topic, see LGBT comic book characters. Until 1989 the Comics Code Authority, which imposed de facto censorship on comics sold through newsstands in the United States, forbade any suggestion of homosexuality.[16] Overt lesbian themes were first found in underground and alternative titles which did not carry the Authority's seal of approval. The first comic with an openly lesbian character was "Sandy Comes Out" by Trina Robbins, published in the anthology Wimmen's Comix #1 in 1972.[17] Gay Comix (1980) included stories by and about lesbians and by 1985 the influential alternative title Love and Rockets had revealed a relationship between two major characters, Maggie and Hopey.[18] Meanwhile mainstream publishers were more reticent. A relationship between the female Marvel comics characters Mystique and Destiny was only implied at first, then cryptically confirmed in 1990 through the use of the archaic word leman, meaning a lover or sweetheart.[19] Only in 2001 was Destiny referred to in plain language as Mystique's lover.[20] In 2006 DC Comics could still draw widespread media attention by announcing a new, lesbian incarnation of the well-known character Batwoman[21] even while openly lesbian characters such as Gotham City police officer Renee Montoya already existed in DC Comics.[22]

Some writers and others (notably Chris Rock on Saturday Night Live) have commented that the Peanuts character Peppermint Patty is a lesbian (Peppermint Patties is a sometimes pejorative slang word for lesbians), although such an inference was never supported by the comic strip's content.

In 2006, the graphic memoir Fun Home: A Family Tragicomic by Alison Bechdel, was lauded by many media as among the best books of the year. Bechdel is the author of Dykes to Watch Out For, one of the best-known and longest-running LGBT comic strips.

In manga and anime, lesbian content is called shoujo-ai (literally: girl-love) whereas lesbian sex is called yuri, which may have a derogatory meaning. A main theme of the Japanese graphic novel Yokohama Kaidashi Kikō is the developing romance between characters Alpha and Kokone.

Anime Main article: Yuri (term) The third season of the anime series Sailor Moon, Sailor Moon S, features a lesbian relationship between the two heroines Sailor Uranus and Sailor Neptune.[23] However, the season was heavily censored when dubbed and shown on TV in the United States. Many of the scenes which would suggest this particular relationship were cut away and the two characters were depicted as cousins (this led to further controversy as many fans noticed the editing).[24] In many of the mangaka group Clamp's series such as Miyuki-chan in Wonderland or Card Captor Sakura, some characters are clearly lesbians, with fan speculation about others. In Miyuki-chan in wonderland, for example, Miyuki is constantly trying to escape the attention of scantily-clad female admirers;[25] while Tomoyo in CCS is famous for her ostensibly innocent but rather suspect obsession with playing "dress-up" with the lead character, Sakura.[26]

Games For more details on this topic, see Gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender characters in video and computer games. SaGa Frontier (a PlayStation title produced by Squaresoft) has a lesbian character named Asellus. Another character named Gina is a young girl who tailors Asellus' outfits, often discusses her deep attraction to Asellus and becomes her bride in one of the game's many endings. However, much related dialogue and some content has been edited out of the English language version.[27] The Playstation title Fear Effect 2: Retro Helix (a prequel to Fear Effect) reveals that Hana Tsu Vachel, a main character in both games, had a sexual relationship with a female character named Rain Qin.

Feminism

Same-sex married couple at San Francisco Pride 2004.Historically, many lesbians have been involved in women's rights. Late in the 19th century, the term Boston marriage was used to describe romantic unions between women living together, often while contributing to the suffrage movement.

Same sex marraige has now been legalized in Netherlands, Spain, Belgium, Canada, and South Africa but it is still not permitted by many countries. Continuing this tradition of inclusive acceptance, in 2004 Massachusetts became the first American state to legalize same-sex marriages.[28]

During the 1970s and 80s, with the emergence of modern feminism and the radical feminism movement, lesbian separatism became popular and groups of lesbian women gathered together to live in communal societies. Women such as Kathy Rudy in Radical Feminism, Lesbian Separatism, and Queer Theory remarked that, in her experience, stereotypes and the hierarchies to reinforce them developed in the lesbian separatist collective she lived in, ultimately leading her to leave the group.

During the 1990s, dozens of chapters of Lesbian Avengers were formed to press for lesbian visibility and rights.

Transwomen and trans-inclusion

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The relationship between lesbianism and lesbian-identified transgender or transsexual women has been a turbulent one, with historically adversarial attitudes, but this seemed to be changing with the growing popularity of queer politics and analysis.

Some lesbian groups openly welcome transsexual women and may even welcome any member who identifies as lesbian, but some groups still do not welcome transwomen. The Lesbian Avengers have historically had a very inclusive policy.

Disputes in defining the term lesbian along with enforced exclusions from lesbian events and spaces have been numerous. Some who hold a non-inclusionist attitude often make reference to strong, typically second-wave feminist ideas such as those of Sheila Jeffreys, and Mary Daly, who has described post-operative male-to-female (MTF) transsexuals as constructed women. They may attribute transsexualism to mechanisms of patriarchy or do not recognize a MTF transsexual's identification as female and lesbian. By defining lesbian through these views, they subsequently defend the non-inclusion of women with transsexual or transgender-backgrounds.

Inclusionists claim these attitudes are inaccurate and derive from fear and distrust, or that the motivations and attitudes of transgender or transsexual lesbians are not well understood, and so they defend the inclusion of transwomen into lesbianism and lesbian spaces.

Both views are common. One incident due to this divisiveness arose during the early 1990s in Australia, when the wider lesbian community raised money to purchase a building devoted to lesbian women called The Lesbian Space Project. Before the organisation bought the building, a debate over inclusion of transwomen polarised the lesbian community, the building was later closed, the funds were invested and now generate money for an annual Australian lesbian grants program called LInc (Lesbians Incorporated).

An example often cited among the transgender and transsexual communities is the Michigan Womyn's Music Festival, a well-known and primarily lesbian event restricted to womyn-born womyn. Camp Trans, an organization oriented towards transwomen, was started as a result.