コンテンツにスキップ

英文维基 | 中文维基 | 日文维基 | 草榴社区

利用者:さくさくさっくん/sandbox

Freedom of Information Act
アメリカ合衆国の国章
頭字語(口語)FOIA
通称
  • Public Information Act of 1966
  • Public Information Availability
制定議会アメリカ合衆国第89議会英語版
引用
一般法律89-487
Stat.80 Stat. 250
改廃対象
改正し
た法律
行政手続法
改正した
USCの編
第5編
創設した
USCの条
5 U.S.C. ch. 5, subch. II § 552
立法経緯
主な改正
  • Privacy Act of 1974, PL 93–579, 88 Stat 1896
  • Government in the Sunshine Act, PL 94–409, 90 Stat 1241
  • Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986, PL 99–570, 100 Stat 3207
  • Electronic Freedom of Information Act of 1996
  • The Intelligence Authorization Act of 2002, PL 107-306, 116 Stat 2383
  • OPEN Government Act of 2007, PL 110-175, 121 Stat 2524
  • Wall Street Reform Act of 2010
  • FOIA Improvement Act of 2016
最高裁判例

米国情報の自由法(べいこくじょうほうのじゆうほう,英:Freedom of Information Act)は,米国政府,州,及びその他の公的機関によって管理されている未公開又は未公刊の情報又は文書について,請求に応じた完全又は部分的な公開を求める米国の連邦法である. 本法は,開示の対象となる政府機関の記録を定義し,必要な開示手続きの概略を示し,開示の対象外となる情報の類型を9種類定義している[1][2]. 本法は米国政府機関の透明性を高めることにより,米国民がより簡単に政府の問題を把握し,議会,政府機関職員,及び大統領に対して問題に対処するよう圧力をかけることを容易にしようとしていた[3]. 本法は,立法府及び行政府によって繰り返し変更されてきた.

連邦政府に関する情報の自由法とは別に,米国の州には独自の多様な情報公開法がある.

本法は,一般には報道機関が報道目的で利用することで知られている. しかし,そのような請求は全請求の内10%未満であり,企業,法律事務所,個人の利用の方が多い[4]

背景

[編集]

本法の長い法律名が示す通り,本法は元々行政手続法第3節の内容であった. 1946年に制定された行政手続法第3節では,政府機関は行政記録の公開に関する広範な裁量権を持っていた. 本規定が開示メカニズムというよりも情報を出さないためのものになってきたという懸念を受け,1966年に議会は本法を「全政府機関における情報公開の一般原理」を定めるものとして独立させた. この改正は政府機関に対し,各機関の手続きに関する規定を連邦官報に掲載すること(5 U.S.C. § 552(a)(1)(C)),及び連邦官報に掲載前の意見,政策に関する声明,解釈,職員のマニュアルや手順書を公衆が閲覧及び複写出来るようにすること(§ 552(a)(2))を求めていた. さらに,§ 552(a)(3)は全ての政府機関に対して,「以上のような記録を合理的に記述できる記録に対する如何なる請求に対して」,そのような記録を「何人でも直ちに利用できる状態にする」ことを要求している. 政府機関が不適切に文書を不開示とした場合には,§ 552(a)(4)(B)によって地方裁判所は当該文書の提出を命ずることができる管轄権を有している. その行政処分について実質的な証拠があり,恣意的でも不公平でもない場合にはその行政処分が維持される必要がある他の種類の行政処分の審査とは異なり,FOIAは政府機関には「処分を維持する」明白な義務を課し,地方裁判所に「その処分について新たに決定する」ことを求めている.

米国市民の憲法上の又は固有の権利が継続的に強調され,さらに政府の個人への服従が主張される中,一部の人々,特にJohn Moss議員は政府の情報を公衆が利用できるようにする必要があると考えた. この圧力は,政府機関の既存の原理と手順に基づいて構築された[5]

しかし,他の人々,特にLyndon B. Johnson大統領は機密指定されていない情報の中でも特定の種類のものは,なお非公開にしておくべきだと信じていた. ホワイトハウスの反対にもかかわらず,1966年に議会は行政手続法第3節を独立した法律に格上げし行政記録の公開のさらなる標準化を目指したたほか,公衆は行政記録を「知る権利」を持っているとの信念で一致した. また,Privacy Act of 1974は民間で保管される行政記録の増加に伴い,これらの安全を確保するために,本法を相殺するものとして可決された.

本法の射程

[編集]

本法は行政府の下にある機関にのみ適用される. これらの機関は公衆の情報要求に応えるためにいくつかの義務を課されている. 政府機関に対する文書の請求に関する手順を全て公開する必要がある.さらに,政府機関が情報公開のプロセスを妨害した場合には罰則の対象となる. もし,「政府機関職員が情報の開示を差し控えるように恣意的又は不公平に行動した場合には,特別検察官は速やかに当該行動に対して一時的に責任を負う役職員に対する懲戒処分の当否を決定する手続きを始める[6]. 記録の違法な改ざんや送信遅延の疑いがある場合には,開示請求者が連邦裁判所に訴えることもできる. ただし,「国防又は外交上の利益の観点から大統領令により制定された基準の下で,特に承認を受けて秘密指定されている場合」や「企業秘密」から「明白に不当なプライバシーの侵害となる場合」まで,開示に関する9種類の例外がある[6]. 現在存在するこれら9つの例外は,人権及び機微な情報に対応するものである. この例外は,以下の通り規定されている(合衆国法典第5編第552条 5 U.S.C. § 552[7]

  1. (A)国家安全保障又は外交上の利益の観点に基づく秘密保持のための大統領令によって確立された基準の下で明確に承認されていて,かつ(B)実際に同大統領令に従って適切に分類されているもの.[8]
  2. 専ら行政機関内部の人事に関する規則又は慣行のみに関連するもの.[8]
  3. 法令(合衆国法典の本法を含む編の552b条を除く)によって具体的に開示が免除されているもののうち,法令により(A)公衆に対して公表しないことが裁量のない形で規定されているもの,または,(B)特に非公開に関する基準を確立し,又は非公開となる情報の類型を特に定めているもの.[8] FOIA Exemption 3 Statutes
  4. 商取引に関する秘密,又は,個人から取得した商業か金融に関する情報であって,免責されるものか機密情報;[8]
  5. 行政機関の間または行政機関内部の覚書か書簡であって,政府機関以外の当事者が法律により入手できないもの.[8]
  6. 人事に関するファイル,医療に関するファイル,又は同様のファイルであって,その開示が明らかに不当なプライバシーの侵害を構成するもの.;[8]
  7. 法執行のために編纂された記録又は情報であって,その記録又は情報を開示することにより,(A)法執行手続きが妨げられると合理的に予期できるもの,(B)個人から公正な裁判又は公平な判決を受ける権利を奪うことになるであろうもの,(C)プライバシーの不当な侵害を構成することになると合理的に予期できるもの,(D)  (D) could reasonably be expected to disclose the identity of a confidential source, including a State, local, or foreign agency or authority or any private institution which furnished information on a confidential basis, and, in the case of a record or information compiled by a criminal law enforcement authority in the course of a criminal investigation or by an agency conducting a lawful national security intelligence investigation, information furnished by a confidential source, (E) would disclose techniques and procedures for law enforcement investigations or prosecutions, or would disclose guidelines for law enforcement investigations or prosecutions if such disclosure could reasonably be expected to risk circumvention of the law, or (F) could reasonably be expected to endanger the life or physical safety of any individual;[8]
    • Virginia's FOIA council refers to this as the criminal investigative files exemption[9][10][11]
  8. contained in or related to examination, operating, or condition reports prepared by, on behalf of, or for the use of an agency responsible for the regulation or supervision of financial institutions;[8] or
  9. geological and geophysical information and data, including maps, concerning wells.[8][12]

The Postal Reorganization Act of 1970 (at 合衆国法典第39編第410(c)(2)条 39 U.S.C. § 410(c)(2)) exempts the United States Postal Service (USPS) from disclosure of "information of a commercial nature, including trade secrets, whether or not obtained from a person outside the Postal Service, which under good business practice would not be publicly disclosed".[13]

A federal court has concisely described the vital role of the FOIA in democracy:

It has often been observed that the central purpose of the FOIA is to "open … up the workings of government to public scrutiny." One of the premises of that objective is the belief that "an informed electorate is vital to the proper operation of a democracy." A more specific goal implicit in the foregoing principles is to give citizens access to the information on the basis of which government agencies make their decisions, thereby equipping the populace to evaluate and criticize those decisions.[14]:1108

Legislative history

[編集]

The law came about because of the determination of United States House of Representatives member John E. Moss of California. Moss was chairman of the House Government Information Subcommittee. It took Moss 12 years to get the Freedom of Information Act through Congress.[15] Much of the desire for government transparency stemmed from the Department of Defense and Congressional committees evaluation of the nation's classification system in the late 1950s. They determined that the misuse of government classification of documents was causing insiders to leak documents that were marked "confidential". The committee also determined that the lowest rung of the confidentiality ladder "confidential" should be removed. They deemed that "secret" and "top secret" covered National security adequately.[15] The Moss Committee took it upon itself to reform confidentiality policy and implement punishments for the overuse of classification by officials and departments.

Initial enactment

[編集]

The Freedom of Information Act was initially introduced as the bill S. 1160 in the 89th Congress. When the two-page bill was signed into law, it became Pub.L. 89–487, 80 Stat. 250 1966年7月4日制定, but had an effective date of one year after the date of enactment, or July 4, 1967. The law set up the structure of FOIA as we know it today. President Lyndon B. Johnson, despite his misgivings,[16][17] signed the Freedom of Information Act into law.[18]

That law was initially repealed. During the period between the enactment of the act and its effective date, Title 5 of the United States Code was enacted into positive law.[19] For reasons now unclear but which may have had to do with the way the enactment of Title 5 changed how the law being amended was supposed to be cited, the original Freedom of Information Act was replaced. A new act in Pub.L. 90–23, 81 Stat. 54 1967年6月5日制定 (originally H.R. 5357 in the 90th Congress), repealed the original and put in its place a substantively identical law. This statute was signed on June 5, 1967, and had the same effective date as the original statute: July 4, 1967.

Amendments and executive actions

[編集]

Privacy Act Amendments of 1974

[編集]

Following the Watergate scandal, President Gerald R. Ford wanted to sign FOIA-strengthening amendments in the Privacy Act of 1974, but White House Chief of Staff Donald Rumsfeld and deputy Dick Cheney were concerned about leaks.[20] Assistant Attorney General for the Office of Legal Counsel Antonin Scalia advised the bill was unconstitutional and even telephoned the CIA asking them to lobby a particular White House staffer.[20] President Ford was persuaded to veto the bill on October 17, 1974, according to documents declassified in 2004.[20] However, on November 21, the lame-duck Congress overrode President Ford's veto, giving the United States the core Freedom of Information Act still in effect today, with judicial review of executive secrecy claims.[20][21]

Scalia remained highly critical of the 1974 amendments, writing years later that "It is the Taj Mahal of the Doctrine of Unanticipated Consequences, the Sistine Chapel of Cost-Benefit Analysis Ignored."[22] Scalia particularly disliked the availability of judicial review, decrying that if "an agency denies a freedom of information request, shazam!—the full force of the Third Branch of the government is summoned to the wronged party's assistance."[22]

Those amendments to the FOIA regulate government control of documents that concern a citizen. They give one "(1) the right to see records about [one]self, subject to the Privacy Act's exemptions, (2) the right to amend that record if it is inaccurate, irrelevant, untimely, or incomplete, and (3) the right to sue the government for violations of the statute including permitting others to see [one's] records unless specifically permitted by the Act."[23] In conjunction with the FOIA, the Privacy Act is used to further the rights of an individual gaining access to information held by the government. The Justice Department's Office of Information and Privacy and federal district courts are the two channels of appeal available to seekers of information.[24]

1976 Government in the Sunshine Act amendments

[編集]

In 1976, as part of the Government in the Sunshine Act, Exemption 3 of the FOIA was amended so that several exemptions were specified:

  1. Information relating to national defense,
  2. Related solely to internal personnel rules and practices,
  3. Related to accusing a person of a crime,
  4. Related to information where disclosure would constitute a breach of privacy,
  5. Related to investigatory records where the information would harm the proceedings,
  6. Related to information which would lead to financial speculation or endanger the stability of any financial institution, and
  7. Related to the agency's participation in legal proceedings.

1982 Executive Order limiting the FOIA

[編集]

Between 1982 and 1995, President Reagan's Template:Executive Order allowed federal agencies to withhold enormous amounts of information under Exemption 1 (relating to national security information), claiming it would better protect the country and strengthen national security.[25]

The outcry from the effect that the Reagan Order had on FOIA requests was a factor in leading President Clinton to dramatically alter the criteria in 1995.[26]

1986 Omnibus Anti-Drug Abuse Act amendments to the FOIA

[編集]

The FOIA amendments were a small part of the bipartisan Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986. Congress amended FOIA to address the fees charged by different categories of requesters and the scope of access to law enforcement and national security records. The amendments are not referenced in the congressional reports on the Act, so the floor statements provide an indication of Congressional intent.[27]

1995–99 expansion

[編集]

Between 1995 and 1999, President Clinton issued executive directives (and amendments to the directives) that allowed the release of previously classified national security documents more than 25 years old and of historical interest, as part of the FOIA.[28] This release of information allowed many previously publicly unknown details about the Cold War and other historical events to be discussed openly.[26]

Electronic Freedom of Information Act Amendments of 1996

[編集]
E-FOIA request
An example of an E-FOIA request. This particular request concerns possible records the Federal Bureau of Investigation might have on the Polybius urban legend.

The Electronic Freedom of Information Act Amendments of 1996 (E-FOIA) stated that all agencies are required by statute to make certain types of records, created by the agency on or after November 1, 1996, available electronically. Agencies must also provide electronic reading rooms for citizens to use to have access to records. Given the large volume of records and limited resources, the amendment also extended the agencies' required response time to FOIA requests. Formerly, the response time was ten days and the amendment extended it to twenty business days.[7]

2001 Executive Order limiting the FOIA

[編集]

Executive Order 13233, drafted by Alberto R. Gonzales and issued by President George W. Bush on November 1, 2001, restricted access to the records of former presidents.

This order was revoked on January 21, 2009, as part of President Barack Obama's 大統領令 13489.[29] Public access to presidential records was restored to the original extent of five years (12 for some records) outlined in the Presidential Records Act.[30]

Intelligence Authorization Act of 2002 amending the FOIA

[編集]

In 2002, Congress passed the Intelligence Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2003, Pub.L. 107–306.[31] Within this omnibus legislation were amendments to the FOIA (pertaining mainly to intelligence agencies) entitled "Prohibition on Compliance with Requests for Information Submitted by Foreign Governments":[32]

Section 552(a)(3) of title 5, United States Code, is amended—

(1) in subparagraph (A) by inserting "and except as provided in subparagraph (E)", after "of this subsection"; and

(2) by adding at the end the following:

(E) An agency, or part of an agency, that is an element of the intelligence community (as that term is defined in section 3(4) of the National Security Act of 1947 (50 U.S.C. § 401a(4))) shall not make any record available under this paragraph to—
(i) any government entity, other than a State, territory, commonwealth, or district of the United States, or any subdivision thereof; or
(ii) a representative of a government entity described in clause (i).

In effect, this new language precluded any covered U.S. intelligence agency from disclosing records in response to FOIA requests made by foreign governments or international governmental organizations. By its terms, it prohibits disclosure in response to requests made by such non-U.S. governmental entities either directly or through a "representative".[33] This means that for any FOIA request that by its nature appears as if it might have been made by or on behalf of a non-U.S. governmental entity, a covered agency may inquire into the particular circumstances of the requester in order to properly implement this new FOIA provision.[31]

The agencies affected by this amendment are those that are part of, or contain "an element of", the "intelligence community". As defined in the National Security Act of 1947 (as amended), they consist of the CIA, the National Security Agency, the Defense Intelligence Agency, the National Imagery and Mapping Agency, the National Reconnaissance Office (and certain other reconnaissance offices within the Department of Defense), the intelligence elements of the Army, the Navy, the Air Force, and the Marine Corps, the FBI, the Department of the Treasury, the Department of Energy, and the Coast Guard, the Department of Homeland Security, the Bureau of Intelligence and Research in the Department of State, and "such other elements of any other department or agency as may be designated by the President, or designated jointly by the Director of Central Intelligence and the head of the department or agency concerned, as an element of the intelligence community".[31][34]

OPEN Government Act of 2007

[編集]

President Bush signed the Openness Promotes Effectiveness in our National Government Act of 2007, Pub.L. 110–175, on December 31, 2007. This law, also known as the "OPEN Government Act of 2007", amended the federal FOIA statute in several ways.[35] According to a White House press release, it does so by:

  1. establishing a definition of "a representative of the news media;"
  2. directing that required attorney fees be paid from an agency's own appropriation rather than from the Judgment Fund;
  3. prohibiting an agency from assessing certain fees if it fails to comply with FOIA deadlines; and
  4. establishing an Office of Government Information Services (OGIS)[36] in the National Archives and Records Administration to review agency compliance with FOIA.[37]

Changes include the following:

  • it recognizes electronic media specifically and defines "News Media" as "any person or entity that gathers information of potential interest to a segment of the public, uses its editorial skills to turn the raw materials into a distinct work, and distributes that work to an audience."
  • it extends the 20-day deadline by allowing for up to 10 days between the FOIA office of the agency and the component of the agency holding the records and specifically allows for clarification of requests by the FOIA office (Effective 12/31/2007).
  • it calls for each agency to designate a FOIA Public Liaison, "who shall assist in the resolution of any disputes" (Effective 12/31/2008).
  • it requires agencies to assign tracking numbers to FOIA requests that take longer than 10 days, and to provide systems determining the status of a request.
  • it codifies and defines annual reporting requirements for each agency's FOIA program.
  • it specifically addresses data sources used to generate reports; "shall make the raw statistical data used in its reports available electronically ..."
  • it redefines the definition of an agency "record" to include information held for an agency by a government contractor.
  • it establishes an Office of Government Information Services (OGIS)[36] which will offer mediation services to resolve disputes as non-exclusive alternative to litigation.
  • it requires agencies to make recommendations personnel matters related to FOIA such as whether FOIA performance should be used as a merit factor.
  • it requires agencies to specify the specific exemption for each deletion or redaction in disclosed documents.

2009 Executive Order permitting retroactive classification

[編集]

On December 29, 2009, President Barack Obama issued Executive Order 13526, which allows the government to classify certain specific types of information relevant to national security after it has been requested.[38] That is, a request for information that meets the criteria for availability under FOIA can still be denied if the government determines that the information should have been classified, and unavailable. It also sets a timeline for automatic declassification of old information that is not specifically identified as requiring continued secrecy.

2010 repeal of FOIA amendments in Wall Street reform act

[編集]

The Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, signed into law in July 2010, included provisions in section 929I[39][40] that shielded the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) from requests under the Freedom of Information Act. The provisions were initially motivated out of concern that the FOIA would hinder SEC investigations that involved trade secrets of financial companies, including "watch lists" they gathered about other companies, trading records of investment managers, and "trading algorithms" used by investment firms.[41]

In September 2010, the 111th Congress passed an act repealing those provisions. The act was introduced in the Senate on August 5, 2010 as S.3717[42] and given the name "A bill to amend the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, the Investment Company Act of 1940, and the Investment Advisers Act of 1940 to provide for certain disclosures under section 552 of title 5, United States Code, (commonly referred to as the Freedom of Information Act), and for other purposes."

Notable cases

[編集]

A major issue in released documentation is government "redaction" of certain passages deemed applicable to the Exemption section of the FOIA. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) officers in charge of responding to FOIA requests "so heavily redacted the released records as to preclude needed research."[24] This has also brought into question just how one can verify that they have been given complete records in response to a request.

J. Edgar Hoover

[編集]
Document with some text blacked out.
Freedom of Information Act requests have led to the release of information such as this letter by J. Edgar Hoover about surveillance of ex-Beatle John Lennon. A 25-year battle by historian Jon Wiener based on FOIA, with the assistance of lawyers from the ACLU, eventually resulted in the release of documents like this one.

This trend of unwillingness to release records was especially evident in the process of making public the FBI files on J. Edgar Hoover. Of the 164 files and about eighteen thousand pages collected by the FBI, two-thirds were withheld from Athan G. Theoharis, most notably one entire folder entitled the "White House Security Survey". Despite finding out that the Truman Library had an accessible file which documented all the reports of this folder, the FBI and Office of Information and Privacy put forth "stony resistance" to the FOIA appeal process.[24]

Department of Justice v. Landano murder trial

[編集]

A murder trial decided in 1993, Department of Justice v. Landano, 508 U.S. 165 (1993), involved what was alleged to be a felony murder committed during a group burglary by defendant Landano. Justice Sandra Day O'Connor wrote the unanimous opinion. "In an effort to support his claim in subsequent state court proceedings that the prosecution violated Brady v. Maryland, 373 U.S. 83 (1963), by withholding material exculpatory evidence, he filed Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) requests with the FBI for information it had compiled in connection with the murder investigation."[43]

In defense, the FBI put forth a claim that the redacted sections of the documents requested were withheld in accordance with FOIA regulations protecting the identity of informants who gave information regarding case details. However, O'Connor ruled that those who supplied information had no need to remain anonymous in the court setting. "To the extent that the Government's proof may compromise legitimate interests, the Government still can attempt to meet its burden with in camera affidavits." The court thus remanded the case to the Circuit Courts and rejected the FBI's claim of confidentiality as being a valid reason to withhold information.

"While most individual sources may expect confidentiality, the Government offers no explanation, other than administrative ease, why that expectation always should be presumed."[43] Thus, when Theoharis and company were in the middle of fighting in court to obtain J. Edgar Hoover files, they may well have benefited from Landano and also Janet Reno's assertions of the government's need for "greater openness" and "discretionary releases" in 1993.

Iran–Contra affair e-mails

[編集]

In the case of Scott Armstrong v. Executive Office of the President, et al., the White House used the PROFS[24] computer communications software. With encryption designed for secure messaging, PROFS notes concerning the Iran–Contra affair (arms-for-hostages) under the Reagan Administration were insulated. However, they were also backed up and transferred to paper memos. The National Security Council, on the eve of President George H. W. Bush's inauguration, planned to destroy these records. The National Security Archive, Armstrong's association for the preservation of government historical documents, obtained an injunction in Federal District Court against the head, John Fawcett, of the National Archives and Records Administration and the National Security Council's purging of PROFS records. A Temporary Restraining Order was approved by Senior U.S. District Court Judge Barrington D. Parker. Suit was filed at District Court under Judge Richey, who upheld the injunction of PROFS records.[44]

Richey gave a further injunction to prevent a purging of the George H.W. Bush's administration's records as well. On counts of leaving the White House clean for the new Clinton Administration, the Bush group appealed but was denied its request. Finally, the Clinton Administration appealed to the U.S. Court of Appeals, stating that the National Security Council was not truly an agency but a group of aides to the President and thus not subject to FOIA regulations. Under the Presidential Records Act, "FOIA requests for NSC [could] not be filed until five years after the president ha[d] left office ... or twelve years if the records [were] classified."[45] The Clinton administration won, and the National Security Archive was not granted a writ of certiorari by the Supreme Court on these grounds. According to Scott Armstrong, taking into account labor and material costs, the three presidential administrations spent almost $9.3 million on contesting the National Security Archive FOIA requests for PROFS e-mail records.[46]

Secret e-mail accounts and abusive fees

[編集]

In 2013, the Associated Press uncovered several federal agencies where staff regularly used fictitious identities and secret or unlisted email accounts to conduct government business. The use of these email accounts stymied FOIA requests.[47][48][49][50] In some cases, the government demanded exorbitant (greater than $1 million) fees for records that appeals showed should be available for minimal cost.[47][49][51][52]

Processing time

[編集]
U.S. Department of Justice headquarters

The Act contains a provision legally requiring agencies to respond to FOIA requests within 20 days. However, for two main reasons, many agencies rarely meet this requirement. First, the task of screening requests for sensitive or classified information is often arduous and lengthy at agencies like the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Second, Congressional funding for agency staff to handle FOIA requests is usually far less than the necessary amount to hire sufficient employees.[3] As a result, parties who request information under FOIA often end up filing lawsuits in federal court seeking judicial orders forcing the agencies to comply with their FOIA requests.

The first major case of this type was the 1976 case Open America v. Watergate Special Prosecution Force,[53] in which Open America had filed a FOIA request with the U.S. Attorney General and the FBI requesting copies of all their documents relating to the role of former FBI Director L. Patrick Gray in the Watergate scandal. The FBI had over 5,000 pending FOIA requests at the time, and did not respond within the statutory 20-day limit. Open America sued in the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia, and the court issued an order commanding the FBI to either immediately comply with or deny Open America's request.[54] The government appealed to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit, which found that FOIA requests could be categorized into "simple" and "difficult" requests, and that although Open America's request was "difficult", the FBI had been using "due diligence" in responding to it. The court held that because there was no pressing urgency to Open America's request, its lawsuit did not move it to the head of the queue, and it would have to wait its turn.[54] This legal reasoning and holding has been adopted by all other American circuits, though courts continue to complain that FOIA request delays are too long.[54] In the 1983 case McGehee v. CIA the District of Columbia Circuit Court of Appeals stated,

The Freedom of Information Act nevertheless imposes on the courts the responsibility to ensure that agencies comply with their obligation to "make ... records promptly available to any person" who requests them unless a refusal to do so is justified by one of the Act's specific, exclusive exemptions. Especially where, as here, an agency's responses to a request for information have been tardy and grudging, courts should be sure they do not abdicate their own duty.[14]:1114

The Center for Effective Government analyzed 15 federal agencies which receive the most FOIA requests in-depth. The organization used a scale considering 3 factors: the clarity of agency rules regarding FOIA requests, quality or 'friendliness' of an agency's FOIA webpage, and the timely, complete manner of processing requests. With this metric, it concluded that federal agencies are struggling to implement public disclosure rules. In the latest analysis published in 2015 (using 2012 and 2013 data, the most recent years available) ten of the 15 did not earn satisfactory overall grades, scoring less than 70 out of a possible 100 points. Eight of the ten earned Ds, including the Department of Homeland Security (69 percent), Department of Transportation (68 percent), United States Department of the Treasury (Treasury) (68 percent), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (67 percent), the United States Department of Labor (63 percent), the United States Department of Veterans Affairs (64 percent), the United States Department of Defense (61 percent), the Securities and Exchange Commission (61 percent). The Department of Health and Human Services and the Department of State earned an F. The State Department's score (37 percent) was dismal due to its extremely low processing score of 23 percent, which was completely out of line with any other agency's performance. Scores of five agencies, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, the Department of Health and Human Services, the SEC, the DOJ, and the EPA, even decreased marginally.[55]

Implementation by government agencies

[編集]

Starting in 2012, the Federal government job title Government Information Specialist was established for professionals focused on FOIA or privacy matters.[56][57] Agencies sometimes track or process FOIA requests on websites or systems shared across organizations, such as FOIAonline[58] and eFOIA.[59]

See also

[編集]

References

[編集]
  1. ^ Branscomb, Anne (1994). Who Owns Information?: From Privacy To Public Access. BasicBooks 
  2. ^ 5 U.S.C. § 552(a)(4)(F)
  3. ^ a b Hickman & Pierce (2014), p. 122.
  4. ^ Schouten, Cory (March 17, 2017). “Who files the most FOIA requests? It's not who you think.” (英語). Columbia Journalism Review. 2019年7月20日閲覧。
  5. ^ Jones, Nate (2018年4月17日). “John Moss and the Roots of the Freedom of Information Act: Worldwide Implications” (英語). UNREDACTED. 2019年7月19日閲覧。
  6. ^ a b Office of Information and Privacy (OIP) (2005年10月10日). “U.S. Department of Justice Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) General Information”. 2010年1月3日閲覧。
  7. ^ a b FOIA Update: The Freedom of Information Act, 5 U.S.C. sect. 552, As Amended By Public Law No. 104-231, 110 Stat. 3048”. Office of Information and Privacy, U.S. Department of Justice (13 August 2014). Template:Cite webの呼び出しエラー:引数 accessdate は必須です。
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h i ACLU Step-by-Step Guide to using the Freedom of Information Act; American Civil Liberties Union Foundation pamphlet written by Allan Robert Adler, pp. 3–5, ISBN 0-86566-062-X
  9. ^ AO-04-14”. Virginia.gov (22 May 2014). Template:Cite webの呼び出しエラー:引数 accessdate は必須です。 “further records were denied pursuant to the criminal investigative files exemption, subdivision A 2 a of § 2.2-3706.”
  10. ^ Provence, Lisa (31 August 2015). “Exempt or not exempt? Judge considers FOIA lawsuit”. c-ville.com. Template:Cite webの呼び出しエラー:引数 accessdate は必須です。 “when he requested the records again in February 2015, it was denied, citing the "criminal investigative files" exemption to the Freedom of Information Act”
  11. ^ February 14: For the love of ...”. issuu.com (13 February 2018). Template:Cite webの呼び出しエラー:引数 accessdate は必須です。 “Alan Gernhardt at the Virginia Freedom of Information Advisory Council says the videos could fall under FOIA's criminal investigative files exemption, especially if they were shown at a preliminary hearing.”
  12. ^ Smith, Michael (2014年4月1日). “Michael Smith's Law Blog: Why Wells?: Exploring the Freedom of Information Act's Ninth Exemption”. Michael Smith's Law Blog. 2020年4月26日閲覧。
  13. ^ USPS: ZIP Codes are "Commercially Sensitive" Trade Secrets”. The WebLaws.org Blog (November 6, 2013). 7 November 2013閲覧。
  14. ^ a b McGehee v. CIA, 697 F.2d 1095 (D.C. Cir. 1983).
  15. ^ a b Gold, Susan Dudley. 2012. Freedom of Information Act. New York, NY: Marshall Cavendish Benchmark.
  16. ^ FOIA Legislative History”. The National Security Archive. The National Security Archive. 24 September 2013閲覧。
  17. ^ Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley. “Lyndon B. Johnson: "Statement by the President Upon Signing the "Freedom of Information Act.", July 4, 1966.”. The American Presidency Project.. The American Presidency Project.. 22 August 2018時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。24 September 2013閲覧。
  18. ^ Metcalfe, Daniel J. (23 May 2006). The Presidential Executive Order on the Freedom of Information Act (PDF). 4th International Conference of Information Commissioners. pp. 54–74. 2011年10月18日時点のオリジナル (PDF)よりアーカイブ。2013年6月20日閲覧
  19. ^ The enactment of Title 5 into positive law was done by Pub.L. 89–554, 80 Stat. 378 1966年9月6日制定. This means that while Title 5 existed before, it was merely a compilation of laws but not the law itself. Only about half of the U.S. Code is positive law, meaning the law itself. See uscode.house.gov for background on positive law codifiation of the U.S. Code.
  20. ^ a b c d Veto Battle 30 Years Ago Set Freedom of Information Norms: Scalia, Rumsfeld, Cheney Opposed Open Government Bill; Congress Overrode President Ford's Veto of Court Review”. Electronic Briefing Book No. 142. National Security Archive (George Washington University, Washington, D.C.) (2004年11月23日). Template:Cite webの呼び出しエラー:引数 accessdate は必須です。
  21. ^ Memorandum for President Ford from Ken Cole, "H.R. 12471, Amendments to the Freedom of Information Act," September 25, 1974 Source: Gerald R. Ford Library. Document 10.
  22. ^ a b Scalia, Antonin (March 1982). “The Freedom of Information Act Has No Clothes”. Regulation 6 (2): 14. http://object.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/serials/files/regulation/1982/3/v6n2-3.pdf 10 June 2016閲覧。. 
  23. ^ Your Right to Federal Records: Questions and Answers on the Freedom of Information Act and the Privacy Act. Electronic Privacy Information Center. (1992). http://www.epic.org/open_gov/rights.html 
  24. ^ a b c d Theoharis, Athan (1998). A Culture of Secrecy: The Government Versus the People's Right to Know. Kansas: University Press of Kansas. p. 27. ISBN 9780700608805. https://archive.org/details/cultureofsecrecy00theo 
  25. ^ Exec. Order No. 12356, 3 C.F.R. 166 (1983)
  26. ^ a b Brief Amici Curiae of The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press and the Society of Professional Journalists in support of Leslie R. Weatherhead, Respondent”. United States of America, United States Department of Justice, and United States Department of State, Petitioners, v. Leslie R. Weatherhead, Respondent, in the Supreme Court of the United States (1999年11月19日). 2007年6月9日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2007年7月15日閲覧。
  27. ^ FOIA Reform Legislation Enacted: FOIA Update Vol. VII, No. 4”. U.S. Department of Justice (1986年). Template:Cite webの呼び出しエラー:引数 accessdate は必須です。
  28. ^ Freedom of Information Act (FOIA)”. Illinois Institute of Technology Paul V. Galvin Library. 2002年6月2日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2002年6月4日閲覧。
  29. ^ Executive Order no. 13489, Presidential Records, 74 F.R. 4669 (January 21, 2009)
  30. ^ Executive Order 13489 on Presidential Records”. fas.org. Template:Cite webの呼び出しエラー:引数 accessdate は必須です。
  31. ^ a b c FOIA Post: FOIA Amended by Intelligence Authorization Act”. United States Department of Justice Office of Information and Privacy (2002年). Template:Cite webの呼び出しエラー:引数 accessdate は必須です。
  32. ^ Pub.L. 107–306, 116 Stat. 2383, § 312 (to be codified at 5 U.S.C. § 552(a)(3)(A), 5 U.S.C. § 552(a)(3)(E)).
  33. ^ 5 U.S.C. § 552(a)(3)(E)(ii) (as amended)
  34. ^ 50 U.S.C. § 401a(4) (2000)
  35. ^ Public Law 110-175 OPENNESS PROMOTES EFFECTIVENESS IN OUR NATIONAL GOVERNMENT ACT OF 2007”. Government Printing Office (2007年12月31日). 2010年6月13日閲覧。
  36. ^ a b OGIS Home Page”. National Archives and Records Administration. 2018年11月5日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年12月21日閲覧。
  37. ^ President Bush Signs S. 2488 into Law FAS Project on Government Secrecy
  38. ^ Executive Order 13526”. Federation of American Scientists. Template:Cite webの呼び出しエラー:引数 accessdate は必須です。
  39. ^ House holds hearing on controversial SEC FOIA exemption”. rcfp.org. 2010年9月19日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2010年9月25日閲覧。
  40. ^ Guidance to Staff on Application of Section 929I of the Dodd-Frank Act[リンク切れ] (modified: September 15, 2010) from the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission
  41. ^ Schapiro explains why some info should be secret”. CNN (September 16, 2010). Template:Cite webの呼び出しエラー:引数 accessdate は必須です。
  42. ^ Bill Summary & Status- 111th Congress (2009–2010) S.3717 from THOMAS at the Library of Congress
  43. ^ a b United States Dep't of Justice v. Landano, 373 U.S. 83 (1963).
  44. ^ Theoharis (1998), pp. 151–152.
  45. ^ Theoharis (1998), p. 156.
  46. ^ Theoharis (1998), p. 159.
  47. ^ a b Gillum, Jack (4 June 2013). “TOP OBAMA APPOINTEES USING SECRET EMAIL ACCOUNTS”. The Associated Press. オリジナルの2013年10月7日時点におけるアーカイブ。. https://web.archive.org/web/20131007164848/http://bigstory.ap.org/article/emails-top-obama-appointees-remain-mystery 24 September 2013閲覧。 
  48. ^ “US officials found to be using secret government email accounts”. The Guardian (The Associated Press). (4 June 2013). https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/04/us-officials-secret-email-accounts 24 September 2013閲覧。 
  49. ^ a b Woolery, Liz (14 June 2013). “'Secret' Email Accounts Raise More Questions, Concerns About Government Transparency”. Chilling Effects Clearinghouse. 2013年7月20日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。24 September 2013閲覧。
  50. ^ While US Attorney General, Eric Holder Used Kareem Abdul-Jabbar's Birth Name as His Official Email Address” (英語). VICE News. 2016年2月27日閲覧。
  51. ^ DEA wants $1.4 million before it will begin processing request”. MuckRock. 2016年2月13日閲覧。
  52. ^ The Pentagon's $660 million FOIA fee”. MuckRock. 2016年2月27日閲覧。
  53. ^ Open America v. Watergate Special Prosecution Force, 547 F.2d 605 (D.C. Cir. 1976).
  54. ^ a b c Hickman & Pierce (2014), p. 123.
  55. ^ Making the Grade: Access to Information Scorecard 2015 March 2015, 80 pages, Center for Effective Government, retrieved 21 March 2016
  56. ^ OPM establishes a new occupational series for FOIA and Privacy Act professionals, April 23, 2012, at justice.gov
  57. ^ Position Classification Flysheet for Government Information Series, 0306 at opm.gov
  58. ^ About FOIAonline
  59. ^ Want to Obtain FBI Records a Little Quicker? Try New eFOIA System”. FBI (November 30, 2015). December 8, 2015時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。 Template:Cite webの呼び出しエラー:引数 accessdate は必須です。
Attribution

Further reading

[編集]
[編集]

Template:US Administrative law